MECHANICAL DESIGN OF

OVERHEAD LINES

Mechanical Design
Focuses on the strength of the
conductors, insulator strings, and
support structures.
Must ensure that the Mechanical
strength of the line is such so as to
provide against the most probable
weather conditions.

Mechanical Design
Main Physical Components of
Transmission Lines
1. Conductors
2. Support
3. Insulators
4. Cross arms
5. other misc. items

Conductors
High electrical
conductivity
High tensile strength in
order to withstand
mechanical stresses.
Low cost so that it can be
used for long distances
Low specific gravity so
that weight per unit
volume is small

Conductors
The most commonly used are: copper,
aluminum, steel-cored aluminum, galvanised
steel and cadmium copper.
All conductors used for transmission lines are
preferably stranded in order to increase the
flexibility.
Note: Solid wires are only used when area od
x-section is small. If they are used for larger xsection and longer spans, continuous vibrations
and swinging would produce mechanical fatigue
and they would fracture at the points of support

Copper Conductors
ideal material for
overhead lines because its
high electrical
conductivity and good
tensile strength.
Has high current density
so only a small x-sectional
area is required and the
area offered by the
conductor to wind loads is
reduced.

Aluminum Conductors
Cheap and light
compared to copper
but it has much
smaller conductivity
and tensile strength.
Being widely used as
conductor material
due to its cost,
conductivity, tensile
strength, weight etc.

Aluminum Conductors
Comparison to Copper 1
Aluminum conductivity is 60% of
copper conductivity.
For the same resistance, the
diameter of aluminum must be
about 1.26 times that of copper.
The increased x-section of
aluminum exposes a greater
surface to wind pressure, and
therefore, the supporting towers
must be designed for greater
transverse strength. This often
requires the use of higher towers
with consequence of greater
sag.

Aluminum Conductors
Comparison to Copper
2
The specific gravity of
aluminum is lower
than copper. This
means that the
supports need not be
as many or as strong
as copper supports.

Aluminum Conductors
Comparison to Copper
3
Because of its
lightness, it is liable
to greater swings so
larger cross arms are
needed.

Aluminum Conductors
Comparison to Copper
4
Aluminum ha slower
tensile strength and
higher coefficient of
expansion. This
produces greater sag
on aluminum cables.

Aluminum Conductors

Aluminum Conductors

Steel cored aluminum

conductors
Due to low tensile strength,
aluminum conductors
produce greater sag. This
prohibits their use for larger
spans and makes them
unsuitable for long distance
transmission.
In order to increase the
tensile strength, the
aluminum conductor is
reinforced with a core of
galvanized steel wires.
Also known as ACSR

Steel cored aluminum

conductors
The reinforcement
strengthens
aluminum while still
keeping the cable
light. This results to
smaller sag.
Due to less sag,
smaller and fewer
towers can be used.

Steel cored aluminum

conductors

Steel cored aluminum

conductors

Steel cored aluminum

conductors

Steel cored aluminum

conductors

Galvanized steel
conductors

Steel has a very high tensile

strength.
Can be used for extremely
long spans, or for short line
sections exposed to
abnormally high stresses due
to climatic conditions.
Were found suitable for rural
areas where cheapness is the
main consideration.
Due to poor conductivity and
high resistance, they are not
suitable for transmitting large
power over long distance.

Cadmium copper
conductors

An addition of 1 or 2%
cadmium to copper increases
the tensile strength by about
50% and the conductivity is
only reduced by 15% below
that of pure copper.
Useful for exceptionally long
spans.
Due to high cost of cadmium,
such conductors will be
economical only for lines of
small x-section, where the cost
of conductor material is
comparatively small compared
with the cost of supports.

Line Support
High mechanical strength to withstand the
weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
Light in weight without the loss of
mechanical strength.
Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
Long Life
Easy accessibility of conductors for
maintenance

Line Support
Common Types of Support
1. Wooden Poles
2. Reinforced Concrete Poles
3. Steel Poles
4. Steel Towers

Wooden Poles
Made of seasoned wood (sal or ehir)
and are suitable for lines of moderate
x-sectional area of, relatively shorter
spans (up to about 50m).
Cheap, easily available, provide
insulating properties and are widely
used for distribution purposes in rural
areas as an economical proposition.

Wooden Poles
Disadvantages:
1. Tendency to rot below the ground
level.
2. Comparatively smaller life (20-25
years)
3. Cannot be used for voltages higher
than 20kV
4. Low mechanical strength
5. Requires periodical inspection

Wooden Poles

Wooden Poles

Wooden Poles

Wooden Poles

Wooden Poles

Steel Poles
Often used as substitute for wooden
poles.
have greater mechanical strength,
longer life and permit longer spans to
be used.
Used for distribution purposes in the
cities
Need to be galvanized or painted in
order to prolong its life.

Steel Poles

RCC Poles (reinforced concrete

poles)
Greater mechanical strength, longer
life than steel poles
Permits longer spans than steel
poles.
Good physical look
Require little maintenance
Good insulating properties
Main disadvantage is the difficulty
and cost of transportation

RCC Poles (reinforced concrete

poles)

RCC Poles (reinforced concrete

poles)

RCC Poles (reinforced concrete

poles)

Steel Towers
Used for long distance transmission at
higher voltage.
Have greater mechanical strength, longer
life, can withstand most severe climatic
conditions and permit the use of longer
spans
Suitable for double circuit lines. The double
circuit has the advantage that it ensures
continuity of supply. In case there is
breakdown of one circuit, the continuity of
supply can be maintained by the other
circuit.

Steel Towers

Steel Towers
Types of Towers: Suspension Towers
used for straight lines

Steel Towers
Types of Towers: Tension or Angle Towers
- used to make a turn

Steel Towers
Types of Towers: Tension and Angle
Towers

Steel Towers
Types of Towers: Tension and Angle
Towers

Steel Towers
Types of Towers: Dead-End Tower used
at the beginning and at the end of a line

Insulators
Isolates conductors from support structures
Properties:
1. High mechanical strength in order to withstand
conductor weight, wind load, etc.
2. High electrical resistance and dielectric strength
in order to avoid leakage currents.
3. The insulator material should be non-porous,
free from impurities and cracks other wise the
dielectric strength will be lowered.
4. High ratio of puncture strength to flash over or
safety factor. High safety factor means that a flash
over will occur before the insulator gets punctured.

Insulators
Insulating Material
Porcelain is the most commonly used
material for insulators of overhead lines.
It is produced by heating a mixture of
Kaolin, feldspar and quartz.
It is mechanically stronger than glass,
gives less trouble from leakage and is
less affected by changes of temperature.

Causes of Insulator Failure

Flash Over - an arc that occurs
between the line conductor and
insulator pin and the discharge jumps
across the air gaps, following shortest
distance. The insulator will continue
to act in its proper capacity unless
extreme heat produced by the arc
destroys the insulator.

Causes of Insulator Failure

Puncture When a discharge occurs
from conductor to pin through the
body of the insulator, the insulator is
permanently destroyed due to
excessive heat.

Causes of Insulator Failure

Puncture
Safety Factor of insulator is the ratio of
puncture strength to flash-over voltage.
Puncture trength
Safety factr of insulator=
flash over voltage

It is desirable that the value of safety

factor is high so that flash over takes
place before the insulator gets puncture.

Pin Type Insulators

Secured to the crossarm on the pole.
Used for transmission
and distribution of
electric power at
voltages up to 33kV,
beyond that the
become too bulky and
hence un economical.
Aceeptable safety
factor is about 10.

Suspension Type
Insulators
used for high voltage greater
than 33kV.
Consist of a number of
porcelain discs connected in
series by metal links in the
form of a string.
The conductors are
suspended at the bottom
end of this string while the
other end of the string is
secured to the cross-arm of
the tower.

Suspension Type
Insulators
Each unit or disc is
designated for low
voltage, around 11kV.
The number of discs in
series would depend on
the working voltage.

Strain Insulators
Used to relive the line of
excessive tension when there
is a dead end of the line or
there is corner or sharp curve
For high voltage transmission
lines, strain insulators
consists of an assembly of
suspension insulators. The
discs of strain insulators are
used in the vertical plane.
When the tension in the lines
is exceedingly high, as at long
river spans, two or more
strings are used in parallel.

Shackle Insulators
frequently used for low voltage
distribution lines.
Such insulators can be used
either in a horizontal or vertical
position.
Can be directly fixed to the
pole with a bolt or to the crossarm
Shackle Insulators are used at
the end of distribution lines or
at sharp turns where there is
excessive tensile load on the
lines. These insulators can be
mounted either in the vertical
or horizontal position.

Potential Distribution

String Efficiency
The ratio of the voltage across the
whole string to the product of number
of discs and the voltage across the
disc nearest to the conductor
String efficiency=

Voltage across the string

n (voltage across the
disc nearest to the conductor)

where:
n=number of discs in the string

String Efficiency
decides the potential distribution
along the string
the greater the string efficiency, the
more uniform is the voltage
distribution.
String efficiency is 100% if the
voltage across each disc will be
exactly the same.

String Efficiency
Example
In a 33kV overhead line, there are
three units in the string of insulators. If
the capacitance between each
insulator pin and earth is 11% of selfcapacitance of each insulator, find (a)
the distribution of voltage over three 3
insulators and (b) string efficiency.

String Efficiency
Methods of improving String
Efficiency:
1. by using longer cross-arm
2. By grading the insulators
3. by using a guard ring

Sag
The difference in level between points
of supports and the lowest point on
the conductor is called sag.
The conductor sag should be kept to
a minimum in order to reduce material
required and to avoid extra pole
height for sufficient clearance above
the ground level.

Sag
Note:
1. When supports are at equal level, it takes the
shape of catenary. However, if the sag is very
small compared to the span, then the sag-span
curve is like a parabola.
2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts
tangentially.
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant
throughout the length of the wire.
4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to
the horizontal tension acting at any point on the
wire.

Sag
Factor affecting Sag
- Conductor weight.
- Span length,
- Tension in the conductor, T
- Weather conditions (wind , ice).
- Temperature.

Sag

Sag

Sag
Conductor Spacing
Spacing = (S )0.5 + V/150
Where:
S: Sag in meters.
V: Line voltage in kV.

Sag
Support of Equal Height

Sag
Support of Unequal Height

Sag
Effect of wind and ice

Sag
A 132kV transmission line has the
following data:
Wt of conductor=680kg/km
Ultimate strength=3100kg
Length of span=260m
Safety factor=2
Calculate the height above the ground at
which the conductor should be supported
if the required vertical clearance is 10m.

Sag
A TL has a span of 150m between
supports. The conductor has a xsectional support of 2 cm squared.
The tension in the conductor is
2000kg. If the specific gravity of the
conductor is 9.9g/cm3 and wind
pressure of 1.5kg/m of length,
calculate the total sag and the
vertical sag.

Sag
TL has a span of 200m between level
supports. The conductor has a cross sectional
area of 1.29cm squared, weighs 1170kg/km
and has a breaking stress of 4218kg/cm2.
Calculate the sag for a safety factor of 5,
allowing a wind pressure of 122kg/m2 of
projected area. What is the vertical sag?
A

Tension = breaking stress*cross-sectional

area/SF

Reference:
Power System analysis and design
by: JD Glover, MS Sarma and TJ
Overbye
Principles of Power Systems
By: VK Mehta