BILINGUALS

AND BILINGUALISM
Anniza Qanitah
Saena
Ika Lisna Hidayati

What is bilingualism?
using two languages, not necessarily with equal
proficiency.
In order to understand a bilingual speakers
language ability, we need to know:
when they learned their languages,
how proficient they are in the
languages,
and in what contexts (and with whom)
they use the languages.

A bilingual person may be able to:

speak, read, and write fluently in two languages that is, they
are biliterate.
speak, read, and write in one language, but only speak another
speak, read, and write in one language, but understand to some
extent what is said in another language that is, they can
understand what a speaker of their second language is saying,
even though they may not be confident about speaking that
language. This is termed passive bilingualism.

Bilingual speakers learn their languages

either simultaneously, as they grow up, or
sequentially, learning the second language
after the first

When did they learn their

language(s)?
at the same time, usually in early
childhood and as a result of family
bilingualism. called simultaneous
bilinguals.
learning one language later than the other
perhaps as the result of living in a new
country or formally learning a second
language at a school or university are
called
sequential
bilinguals
or
consecutive bilinguals

According to Romaine (1995), there are

six ways of acquiring bilingualism:

Type 1. One person - one

language

Parents: Each parent has a different native

language and each one has a degree of
competence in the language of the other.
Community: The language of one parent is the
dominant language of the community.
Strategy: Each parent speaks their own native
language to the child from birth.

Author

Ronjar (1913)
Leopold

Mother

Father

Community

language

language

language

German

(1939- English

Strategy

French

French

German/French

German

German

English/German

Italian

Italian

German/Italian

1949)
Taeschner (1983) German

Type 2. Non-dominant home language

Parents: Parents have different native
languages.
Community: The language of one parent is
the dominant language of the community.
Strategy: Both parents speak the nondominant language to the child and the child
is fully exposed to the dominant language
only when outside home.
Author Mother
Father Communit Strateg
languag language
e
Fantini
(1985)

Spanish

language
English

English

Spanish

Type 3. Non-dominant home language

without community support
Parents: Parents share the same native
language.
Community: The dominant language is not
of his parents.
Strategy: The parents speak their own
language to the child.
Author

Mother

Father

Community

Strategy

language

language

language

Haugen (1953)

Norwegian

Norwegian

English

Norwegian

Ruke-Dravina

Latvian

Latvian

Swedish

Latvian

Servian

Servian

French

Servian

(1967)
Pavlovitch
(1920)

Type 4. Double non-dominant home

language without community
support
Parents: Parents do not share the same
native language.
Community: The dominant language is
different from either of the parents
languages.
Strategy: The parents speak their own
language to the child.
Author

Mother

Father

Communit

Strategy

language languag y language

e
Elwrt (1959)

English

German

Italian

English/
German

Type 5. Non-native parents

Parents: Parents share the same native language.
Community: The dominant language is the same as
that of the parents.
Strategy: One of the parents always addresses the
child in a language which is not his/her native
language
Author

Saunder
s (1982)

Mother

Father

languag

languag

English

English
(German)

Community Strategy
language
English

German

Type 6. Mixed languages

Parents: Parents are bilinguals.
Community: Sector of community may also be
bilingual.
Strategy: Parents code-switch and mix
languages.
Author

Mother

Father

Community

languag

language

language

Strategy

e
Tabouret-

French/

French/

French/

French/

Keller (1962)

German

German

German

German

Ellul (1978)

Maltese/

Maltese/

Maltese/

Maltese/

English

English

English

English

Do they have opportunities to

listen, speak, read, and/or
write in their language(s)?
The degree of proficiency depends largely on the
opportunities
If they are able to speak both languages
extensively, then they will become fluent in both.
However, if they have less opportunity to speak
one language, their level of fluency in that
language may be less.
bilingual people may also have different levels of
proficiency in the key language modes of
listening, speaking, reading, and writing for each
language.

In what contexts do they use

their language(s)?
Language use is also often dependent on wider
societal attitudes to the particular languages they
speak.
If both of the languages that bilingual people speak
are valued in the wider society, then it is likely they
will use both their languages in a wide variety of
contexts. balanced bilinguals.
Even if they have comparable levels of fluency, they
may use one language more than the other, or may
use one language in certain contexts (or with certain
people), and the other language in other contexts
(or with other people).
For example, a bilingual person may speak one
language with their immediate family and another

DIFFERENCE TYPES OF
BILINGUALS

Compound vs. Coordinate Bilinguals

Compound
Bilinguals

For compound bilinguals, words and phrases in different languages

are the same concepts.
For example: a perro' and a 'dog' are two words for the same
concept: things just naturally have two names.
These speakers posses the skills necessary for communication in
both languages. They are fluent, but have certain errors in L2 that
have become fossilized.
Fossilization: When an error becomes a habit of speech in L2 learner;
common when error does not interfere with communication, and therefore,
speaker does not get corrective feedback.

Coordinate Bilingual
can easily switch from one language to the other and has a larger
linguistic confidence area.
For coordinate bilinguals, words and phrases in the speaker's mind
are all related to their own unique concepts.
Fore example: a bilingual speaker of this type has different
associations for perro and for dog.
In these individuals, one language, usually the first language, is
more dominant than the other, and the first language may be used
to think through the second language.

Coordinate and compound

bilinguals demonstrate higher
cognitive proficiency then
monolinguals

Early vs. Late Bilinguals

Early Bilingual
Both co-ordinated bilingualism and compound bilingualism
develop in early childhood and are classified as forms of
early bilingualism.
Someone who has acquired two languages early in
childhood (usually received systematic training/learning of
a second language before age 6).

Late
Bilingual
develops when a second language is learned
after age 12.

Balanced vs. Dominant Bilinguals

Balanced Bilingual
Someone who is more or less equally proficient in
both languages, but will not necessarily pass for a
native speaker in both languages.

Dominant
Bilingual
A person being more proficient in one of the two
languages (in most cases native-like).
someone with greater proficiency in one of his or
her languages and uses it significantly more than
the other language

Simultaneous vs. Sequential Bilinguals

Simultaneous
Bilingual
Learning two languages as "first languages".

Simultaneous bilinguals learn both of their

languages from childhood, rather than learning
one language before starting to learn the other
for example when they are raised by parents
speaking more than one language.

Sequential
Bilingual
Also known as consecutive bilinguals

when the child acquires the second language(s)

after having considerably learnt the first language
for example when the parental tongue is different
than the main language of the community or
education system.

Additive vs. Subtractive Bilinguals

Additive
bilingualism

When learning a
interfere with the
Both languages are

Subtractive
bilingualism

second language does not

learning of a first language.
developed.

When learning a second language interferes with

the learning of a first language. The second
language replaces the first language.
This is commonly found in children who emigrate
to a foreign country when they are young,
especially in cases of orphans who are deprived
of their first language input

Elite vs. Folk Bilinguals

Elite Bilingual
Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home,
often in order to enhance social status.
include intermarried couples and those who are
living abroad, temporarily or permanently, for
business or educational reasons.

Folk Bilingual
are minority areas (including so-called "guest
workers") who have not to the same degree chosen
to be surrounded by another language but who feel
they must be bilingual in order to preserve their
heritage.
Although this may look like a choice to us, it feels
less like a choice to those who make it.

Code Switching
and
Code Mixing

Code Switching
Often present in those people who is a bilingual
user, they often switch between their two
languages in the middle of a conversation.
It can take place between or even within sentences,
involving phrases or words or even parts of words
It often occurs in conversation rather than in
writing

"Code-switchingperforms
several
functions
(Zentella, 1985).
First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency
or memory problems in the second language (but this
accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches).
Second, code-switching is used to mark switching
from informal situations (using native languages) to
formal situations (using second language).
Third, code-switching is used to exert control,
especially between parents and children.
Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with
others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as
a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also
'functions to announce specific identities, create
certain
meanings,
and
facilitate
particular
interpersonal relationships (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)."
(William B. Gudykunst,Bridging Differences: Effective
Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004).

Three Kinds of Codes Switching

Situational Code Switching the
situation determines the choice of
language
Conversational Code Switching
the topic of the conversation dictates
the choice of the language
Metaphorical Code Switching the
choice of language determines the
situation

Types of
Code
Switching
Borrowing
a word
from
another language
that has been adapted for use in another.
Adaptation
of
its
pronunciation
and
morphological functions in the sentences.
Calque - is literally translating a phrase
without a regard to proper context (Hughes et
al., 2006).
Inter-sentential is switching at the
sentence level. May serve to emphasize at
point made in the other language
is inserting an entire phrase from the
secondary language into a conversation
using the other language (Hughes et al.,
2006)
Intra-sentential switching is the clause,
phrase level, or a word level if no

Code Mixing/Mixed Code

Refers to linguistic behaviour of a bilingual
speaker who imports words or phrases from
one of his/her languages into the other one.
Numan and Carter define code mixing as, a
phenomenon of switching from one language
to another in the same discourse.
According to Berthold, Mangubhai and
Bartorowiez 1997, code mixing occurs when
speakers shift from one language to the other
in the midst of their conversation. Thus this
definition
accommodates
inter-sentential
switching and intra-sentential mixing both
under the term code switching.

Types of Code Mixing

Intra-lexical Mixing The insertion of
well-defined chunks of language B into a
sentence that otherwise belongs to
language A. Insertion of words from one
language into a structure of another
language
Involving a change of Pronunciation
This kind of code mixing occurs at the
phonological level as when people in
language A say an English word, but
modify
it
to
its
own
Language
phonological structure
Intra-sentential The succession of

Sources
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVYhpCprtzQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbj6ceDOd7E
http://www.linguistics.hku.hk/cou/adv/ling6014/2010/LING60
14%20Lecture%208%20Code%20Switching%20Mixing
%20for%20Students%2013112010.pdf
Word Order Of A Bilingual Childs Clauses In Each Language:
A Case Study Berdin, et. al
Bilingualism (Romaine, 1995)