Signal Conditioning for

Electronic
Instrumentation
Op Amps
MCT 3332 : Instrumentation and
Measurements

Op Amps
Introduction
The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a low cost & versatile IC
consisting of many internal resistance, transducers and
capacitors to amplify a signal.
The Op-Amp can now be used for a huge variety of functions.
composed of many internal transistors, resistors, and capacitors.
These are basic building blocks for:

Amplifiers
Attenuators
Integrators and Differentiators
Summers
Comparators
A/D and D/A converters
Active filters
Sample and Hold circuits
. . . etc.

OP-Amp
Components
The OP-Amp has Single Output and Two Inputs:
Non-Inverting input [+]: output is in phase with input.
Inverting input [-]: output is 180 out of phase with input.

Op Amps
LM 741: Pin Configuration

LM 741 is the most widely used op-amp.

A dot or notch at the end of the package identify the end to
begin counting the pin numbers anti-clockwise.
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Offset null terminals enable corrections required for nonideal behaviour of op-amps.

Internal Design of LM741

Op-Amp in Mechatronics
The op-amp is naturally used in amplifying
analog signals from:
Transducers, which convert physical quantities into
electrical form

Also can be used to convert voltage to current

(when used with transistors)

Op-Amp in Mechatronics
The signals that are converted by transducers
are normally
Small (mV range)
Noisy due to electromagnetic interference
Contain wrong information due to poor transducer
design/installation
Have a dc offset due to transducer and
instrumentation design.
Hence, the need of op-amps to amplify, filter and
convert etc.

OP-Amp :Characteristics
The basic function of the op-amp is to multiply a
voltage level by the gain of the amplifier.
The op-amp requires two power supplies
A positive and a negative voltage supplies, both with
respect to the circuit ground/earth/chassis connection.

The ideal op-amp has an infinite voltage gain, an

infinite bandwidth and infinite input impedances.
The ideal op-amp also has a zero output
impedance, thus, may be used to drive heavy (in
electronic terms) circuits. (Lessen load effect)

OP-Amp
Terminologies

Gain
A = -Vout / Vab. This "open loop" gain
is expressed in terms of the
differential input voltage, V a.
Input Resistance
The input resistance, Ri, is the
resistance between the inverting
and non-inverting input terminals.
Typically these values range from
kilo Ohms to mega Ohms for opamps.
Output Resistance
The output resistance, Ro, of opamps range from a few tens of
Ohms to hundreds of Ohms. The
output resistance will affect how
much of the "ideal" output voltage
under "no load" is actually applied
to a load when a current flows.

OP-Amp
Ideal Op-Amp
Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is made of many transistors,
diodes, resistors and capacitors in integrated circuit technology.
Ideal op-amp is characterized by:
Infinite input impedance
Infinite gain for differential input
Zero output impedance
Infinite frequency bandwidth

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OP-Amp
Ideal Op-Amp
Equivalent circuit of the ideal op-amp can be modeled by:
Voltage controlled source with very large gain A OL
known as open loop gain
Feedback reduces the gain of op-amp
Ideal op-amp has no non-linear distortions

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OP-Amp
Op-Amp
A real or actual op-amp must have a DC supply voltage
which is often not shown on the schematics

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OP-Amp Circuits
Op-Amp circuits for:

Inverting amplifier
Non-inverting amplifier
High impedance buffer
Differential amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
Active filters
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OP-Amp : Configurations

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OP-Amp : Inverting Amplifier

Op-amp are normally used with a negative feedback:
Part of the output signal is returned to the input with
negative sign
Feedback reduces the gain of op-amp
Since op-amp has large gain even small input produces large
output, thus for the limited output voltage (less than V CC) the
input voltage vx must be very small.
Practically we set vx to zero when analyzing the op-amp
circuits.
with vx =0

i1 = vin /R1

i2

i2 = i 1
i1

and

vo = - i2 R2 = - vin R2 / R1
So
Av = vo /vin = - R2 / R1

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OP-Amp : Inverting amplifier

Since vo = - i2 R2 = - vin R2 / R1
Then, we see that the output voltage does not depend on the load
resistance and behaves as voltage source.
Thus the output impedance of the inverting amplifier is zero.
The input impedance is R1 as Zin = vin / i1 = R1

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OP-Amp
Inverting amplifier with higher gain
Inverting amplifier gain vo = -i2 R2 = -vin R2 /R1
Is limited due to fact that it is hard to obtain large resistance ratio.
Higher gains can be obtained in the circuit below where we have:
i1 = vin / R1 = i 2
N2
from KCL at N2 we have:
i2 + i 3 = i 4

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OP-Amp
Inverting amplifier with higher gain
Higher gains can be obtained in the circuit below where we have:
i1=vin/R1=i2
from KCL at N2 we have: i2 + i3 = i4
Also from KVL1: vo=i2R2+i4R4 => i4=(-vo-i2R2)/R4
and from KVL2:
i2R2=i3R3
=>
i3=i2R2/R3

N2

KVL2

KVL1

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OP-Amp
Inverting amplifier with higher gain
Finally using: i2 + i3= i4 and
i4=(-vo-i2R2)/R4
i3=i2R2/R3
we have
i2+i2R2/R3 =(-vo-i2R2)/R4 => i2(1+R2/R3 +R2/R4)= -vo/R4

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OP-Amp
Inverting amplifier with higher gain
i2(1+R2/R3 +R2/R4)= -vo/R4
Substitute
i2=vin/R1
=> vin/R1 *(1+R2/R3 +R2/R4)= -vo/R4
to get the voltage gain
vo/vin=-R4/R1 *(1+R2/R3 +R2/R4)

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OP-Amp
Inverting amplifier with higher gain
So if we chose R1=R3=1kandR2=R4=10 k
then the voltage gain is
Av = vo/vin=
= - R4/R1 * (1+R2/R3 +R2/R4)=
= - 10 * (1+10+1)=
= - 120

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OP-Amp
Example
Find the currents and voltages in these two circuits:
a) i1=vin/R1=1V/1k=1mA
i2=i1=1mA
from KCL
vo=-i2*R2=-10V from KVL
io=vo/RL=-10mA from Ohms law
ix=io-i2=-10mA-1mA=-11mA

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OP-Amp
Example
Find the currents and voltages in these two circuits:

b) i1=vin/R1=5mA
i2=i1=5mA
i2*1k= i3*1k => i3=5mA
i4=i2+i3=10mA
vo=- i2*1k- i4*1k=-10 V

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OP-Amp
Non Inverting Amplifier
iL

v1=vin
i1=v1/R1

-i1

i2

i2=-i1
vo = v1 - i2*R2= v1 + i1*R2 =
= v1 + R2 *v1/R1 =v1(1+ R2 /R1)
Thus the voltage gain of
noninverting amplifier is:

Av= vo / vin = 1+ R2 /R1

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OP-Amp
Voltage Follower
An op amp with unity gain and high input impedance
The input impedance of the op-amp can be greater than 10M.
The voltage output is limited to the short circuit current of the op
amp which gives a output impedance less than 100
Special case of non-inverting amplifier is a voltage follower
so when R2=0
High Input Impedance
vo = v1(1+ R2 /R1)
Low Output Impedance
vo = v1

Usually used as impedance transformer

converting voltage at high impedance to the
same voltage at low impedance

=>
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OP-Amp
Voltage to current follower

vin =io*Rf
so
io=vin/Rf

An op amp with unity

gain and high input
impedance

io

The input impedance of

the op-amp can be
greater than 10M.

The voltage output is

limited to the short
circuit current of the op
amp which gives a
output impedance less
than 100

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OP-Amp
Summing Amplifier
Characteristics:
This op-amp adds two or
more input voltages

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OP-Amp
Differential Amplifier

Vout V2 V1

Rf
Rin

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OP-Amp
Unity Gain Differential Amplifier

Vout V2 V1

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OP-Amp
Instrumentation Amplifier
This amplifier is a solution to the differential
amplifier which is unable to supply high input
impedance
It has these characteristics
Very high input impedance
Large CMRR
Capability to amplify low-level signal in noisy
environment
Consistent bandwidth over a large range of gains
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Instrumentation amplifier

Transfer function

chematic symbol of basic instrumentation amplifier

Characteristics:
A modified differential amplifier
Voltage follower is added at the input to give high input
impedance and low output impedance

OP-Amp
Instrumentation Amplifier (Practical) - Analysis
V3 V1 V1 V2

R1
R gain

R1
V4 V2 V2 V1
R gain

V3 4

R1
V1 V1 V2
V 2 V 2 V1
R gain

2 R1
V1 V2 1

gain
V V
out

R1

R gain

R3
3 4
R2

2 R1 R3
V2 V1 1

gain R 2

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OP-Amp
Comparator
A comparator is a device that
compares two input signals and
output a binary answer (high/low)
depending if one signal is above or
under the level fixed by the other
called reference.
The reference voltage is set in the
inverting input and the input signal in
the non-inverting input.
If the input signal is above or under
the reference, just only some tenths
of milivolts, due to the high gain of
the opamp, the output saturates the
opamp to the positive/negative value.

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Op Amp
Current to Voltage Conversion,
Transimpedance
Amplifier

V V
o

RF

- IS x R F
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Op Amp
Voltage to Current Converter
Capable of sinking current into a
number of loads without
changing the voltage to current
transfer characteristic
Relationship of current and
voltage

R2
Vin
R1 R3

provided the resistance are selected so that

R 1 (R 3 R 5 ) R 2 R 4

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OP-Amp
Voltage to Current Converter
When the op-amp voltage saturates, the maximum load
resistance and maximum current is related by:

Vsat

R4 R5
R3
Im

Rml
R3 R4 R5
Rml=maximum load resistance
Vsat=op-amp saturation on voltage
Im=maximum current
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Op Amp
Integrator
Consists of an input
resistor and feedback
capacitor
Vin
dV
C out 0
R
dt
by integratin g both terms , the circuit response is
1
Vout Vin dt

RC

If Vin is constant, Vin=K

Vout

K
t
RC
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Op Amp
Differentiator
An op amp circuit with an output
proportional to the derivation of
the input voltage
C

dVin Vout

0
dt
R

therefor Vout -RC

dVin
dt

This circuit can only be used

when combined with other
circuitry to depress instability

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Op Amp
Linearization

A non-linear element is
placed in the feedback
loop of the op-amp
Vin
I (Vout ) 0
R
Vin

= input voltage

R = input resistance
I(Vout) = nonlinear variation of
current with voltage

Therefor, Vout,
Vin

R
Where Vout = output voltage
G(Vin/R) = a nonlinear function
of the input voltage
@the inverse function
of I(Vout)
Vout G

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Op Amp
Linearization
If a diode is placed in
the feedback,
I (Vout ) I 0 exp(Vout )

where
I0 = amplitude
constant
= exponential
constant
Inverse of eq. above is
1
1
Va logarithm
log (V ) log ( I R)
out

in

Linearization
circuit
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Op-Amp

Ends

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