Optical Transmitters

Dr. Mohammad Faisal

Dept. of EEE, BUET

Optical Transmitters
Optical Transmitters: convert an electrical signal
into corresponding optical signal then launch it into
fiber
Major Components of Tx: Optical source, e.g., LED, LASER

Basic Concept

(about Tx/Rx): three fundamental processes

occurring between two energy states

Under normal condition, all materials absorb light.

Absorption process occurs when photon of energy
h incident on the material is same has
EEg.2 E1 Eg
That photon is absorbed by the atom. Incident light
is attenuated by such absorption.
The excited atoms eventually return to their
normal ground state and emit light (if direct band
gap material). Emission is of two types:

Spontaneous emission: photons are emitted in random

directions with no phase relationship among themselves
Stimulated emission: Stimulated emission is initiated by
an incident photon. The emitted photon and incident
photon have the same frequency and phase.

All LASERs: emit light through process of

stimulated emission- coherent light
All LEDs: emit light through process of
spontaneous emission- incoherent light

For
electroluminescen
ce, most useful
materials are
direct band gap
semiconductors

Direct band gap material: radiative recombination

is more
Indirect band gap material : non-radiative
recombination is more

Emission and Absorption Rates

Consider a Two-level atomic system under

electromagnetic field
N2
N1

E1 : ground state

Spontaneous
emission
rate:
R AN
spon

N1 and N2 are
atomic densities
in the ground and
the excited states

E2 : excited state

Stimulated emission
Rrate: BN
stim

em

Absorption rate:

Rabs BN1 em

em is the spectral density of electromagnetic

energy. A, B and B are constants. In thermal
equilibrium, the atomic densities are distributed

according
the Boltzmann statistics,
N 2 Nto
1 exp E g k BT exp h k BT

N1 and N2 do not change with time in thermal equilibrium, the

upward and downward transition rates should be equal

Rspon Rstim Rabs

AN 2 BN 2 em BN1 em

AB
1
B exp h
B
k BT
At thermal

equilibrium,
em spectral density of black body radiation given by Planck's formula

em

8 h 3 c3

1
exp h

k
T

A 8 h c B; B B
Comparing the above
equations,
These relations are first obtained by Einstein, thats why, A
and B are called Einstein coefficients.
3

At thermal equilibrium, systems are always absorbing

Spontaneous emission is independent of applied
electromagnetic field

Conclusions:

Rspon can exceed Rstim and Rabs considerably at normal

condition
For radiation in the visible or near-infra-red region (h ~ 1eV),
Spontaneous emission always dominates over stimulated
emission in thermal equilibrium at room temp (kBT 25 meV)

Rspon

Rstim

1
exp h

k
T

N2

h
exp

N1
k BT

Rspon >> Rstim

All lasers must operate away from thermal

equilibrium

For Laser Operation

Thermal non-equilibrium is achieved by pumping

lasers with an external source
Rstim can exceed Rabs when N2>N1. This condition is
known as population inversion, which is a
Figure: Populations
a two-energy-level system, 1.
essential
for laser in
operation.

Boltzmann distribution for a system in thermal equilibrium,

2. a non-equilibrium distribution

Energy

Energy

E2

k BT

E1

k BT

E2

E1
N2
N1
Density of atoms

At Equilibrium

N1

N2

At Non-Equilibrium

How to achieve population inversion?

It is necessary to excite atoms into upper energy level
by external source, i.e., by pumping (by intense
radiation)
Two-Level system:
Rstim BN 2 em
As B=B, maximum possible, Rstim = Rabs
Rabs BN1 em
i.e., N2=N1 so this system is not

Useful for laser.

Three-Energy-Level system:

E0 ground state
E1 metastable state in which atoms spend an unusually long
time. From this state stimulated emission or lasing action
takes place
E2 above the metastable state, is a normal level, atoms
rapidly decay by nonradiative process to either E1 or E0.
Empty state is provided in E2

pumping the electrons in some of the atoms may be excited from E0

to E2. So population inversion is achieved between E1 and E0, As
large number of atoms accumulate in E1. lasing action between E1
and E0.
Four-Level System: Lasing action between E2 and E1

Optical Feedback and LASER Oscillation

Stimulated emission causes two photons (one incident photon,
another induced photon), and these two photons produce more
Continuation of this process effectively creates avalanche
multiplication and coherent emission is obtained.
To achieve this laser action, it is essential to contain photons within
the laser medium and maintain the condition for coherence. This is
achieved by forming mirrors at either end of amplifying medium.
Optical cavity (Fabry Perot Cavity) is formed which provides
positive feedback by reflections at the mirrors. The optical signal
amplifies while passing through medium.
One mirror is made partially transmitting and radiation can escape
from the cavity

Semiconductor LASER

Semiconductor LASER

For Laser operation:

Optical Gain: for
steady state laser
oscillation, the gain
in the amplifying
medium must
exactly balances
the total loss. This
minimum or
threshold gain is
necessary so that
laser oscillations
are initiated and
sustained. This gain
overcomes the loss
and needs to be
replenished
continuously.
Optical Feedback:

ILD

Semiconductor injection laser: carriers are injected inside

the active region under FB. The mid layer confines the
injected carriers. The confinement occurs due to band gap
discontinuity at the junction between two semiconductors
which have same crystalline structure but different Eg. The
thickness of mid layer can be controlled, so high carrier
density can be realized at a given injection current. Light is
generated in the active layer as a result of electron-hole
recombination inside it.

Simple laser structure

A thin (~0.1 nm) active layer is sandwiched between p-type

and n-type cladding layers of another semiconductor with
higher band gap.

LASER structures

LED
LED a FB pn homojunction
A forward biased pn junction diode emits light
through spontaneous emission
(electroluminescence)
Light is incoherent with a relatively wide
spectral width (30-60 nm)
Supports many optical modes
Lower optical power
Harmonic distortion
+ve attributes: simpler construction,
Low cost and less temperature dependent

Power-current characteristics of LED

h
I
q

Internal optical power generated by spontaneous

P emission

int

Carrier injection rate = I/q

int = internal quantum efficiency

int

= fraction of EHPs that recombine through spontaneous

emission
So Rate of photon generation = int * I/q
Photon energy = h =
Emitted Power: P P
e
ext int

h
extint
I
q

ext = external quantum efficiency

= fraction of photons escaping from the device

c: critical angle for

semiconductor-air
interface
Only light emitted within
a cone of angle c,
c=sin-1(n0/n), escapes
from the LED surface

ext

T f 2 sin d

Tf is Fresnel Transmissivity which depends on .

Since NA of optical fiber is in the range of 0.1 0.3, only a few percent of
emitted power is coupled into the fiber.
Normally available power from LEDs is 100W or less though the internal
power may be more than 10mW

LED Spectrum

P-I
1.3m
LED.
P-I curves
curves for
forseveral
severaltemp
tempfor
fora atypical
typical
1.3m
LED.
With
ofof
active
region
With the
the increase
increaseofofcurrent,
current,temperature
temperature
active
region
increases.
increases.

quantum efficiency is temp dependent as non-radiative

Internal
Internal quantum efficiency is temp dependent as non-radiative
recombination rates increase with temp. Thats why, output power
recombination
rates
increase
with temp. Thats why, output
deceases
with the
increase
of temp.
2
power
deceases
with
the
increase

of temp.
Spectral width
Spectral width
is larger for InGaAsP LEDs emitting at 1.3m by
about
is larger
for InGaAsP
LEDs emitting
at 1.3m
a factor
of 1.7 compared
with GaAs
LEDs by
about spectral
a factorwidth,
of 1.7
compared
with GaAs LEDs
Large
= 30-60 nm

Large spectral
width, =in30-60
Produces
huge dispersion
fiber nm
Producesfor
huge
inwith
fiberbit rate 10-100
Suitable
LANdispersion
applications
Mb/s
and for
transmission
distancewith
of a bit
fewrate
km.10-100
Suitable
LAN applications
Mb/s and transmission distance of a few km.

LED Structure
Surface-Emitting LED:
emit light from the
surface that is parallel
to the junction plane
pn homojunction or
heterostructure design
where active region is
surrounded by p and ntype cladding layers.
Cladding layers are
transparent for
heterostructures
Emissive area is
limited to a small region
Coupling efficiency is
And bringing
the fibera close to emissive area
improved
by etching
Addition of epoxy in etched well to increase ext as it reduces
well
n-mismatch

Edge-Emitting LED:
from the edge of the
junction region
It has transparent
guiding layer with a
thin active layer in
order to reduce self
absorption
This waveguiding
narrows the beam
divergence to a halfpower width of around
30 in plane
perpendicular
junction givesto
a Lambertian
the
output with a half-power width of
junction
around 120.

Due
Mosttoofabsence
propagating
of
light is emitted from one end face due to
waveguiding
reflector on the
in the
other end face,
plane
And an
of anti-reflection coating on the emitting end face.

Other LED structure

Surface emitter and edge emitter are useful

for optical fiber communication
Planar LED and Dome LED: they are useful as
visible devices in TV, indicator ckt, alarm ckt,
display devices, industrial applications etc.