Haul Roads Cornerstone Final Feb 07shrunk+ (Shrinked)

Caterpillar Haul Road Design and Management
Name
Venue
Date
Overview
Introduction
The haul road is either the mines greatest asset or greatest liability
Investment in the haul road is money well spent

Major influence on both cost and production
Introduction
In both surface and underground mining, poorly designed and maintained haul roads
can lead to dramatically increased costs
Lost production
Major equipment repair/replacement
Tire longevity
Fuel
Safety
Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

Case Studies the Value of Haul Roads

Increased haul & return speed = Increased cycles
Production is dependant upon the haul road

condition and design
Haul road conditions dictate haul road speed,
fuel burn, tire life, safety, and annual tonnage
Even exceptional haul roads require time and
effort (i.e. money) to keep in top shape
A small decrease in speed and increase in
the cycle time will negatively affect hourly and
annual production

Short haul coal example
785 Truck
150 ton payload overburden
8 min cycle = 7.5 cycles/hr
9 min cycle = 6.7 cycles /hr
7.5 cycles/hr x 150 tons = 1125 tons/hr
Difference:
120 tons
120 tons x .75 efficiency = 90 tons

90 tons x 5 trucks = 450 tons/hr
450 tons/hr x 4,000 hrs = 1,800,000 tons/year lost production

Summary Short haul coal example
1.8M tons of overburden/year = 847,059 BCY of overburden/year lost

At 16:1 strip ratio (BCY of overburden to ton of coal)
Moving 847,059 BCY of overburden allows 52,941 tons of coal to be uncovered
@ $45/ton
$2.38M lost
gross revenue

Short haul coal example (metric)
785 Truck
136.1 tonne payload overburden
7.5 cycles/hr x 136.1 tonne = 1020.75 tonne/hr
6.7 cycles/hr x 136.1 tonne = 911.87 tonne/hr
Difference:
108.88 tonne
108.88 tonne x .75 efficiency = 81.66 tonne

81.66 tonne x 5 trucks = 408.3 tonne/hr
408.3 tonne/hr x 4000 hrs = 1,633,200 tonne/year lost production

Summary Short haul coal example (metric)
1.633M tonnes of overburden/year = 648,095 BCM of overburden/year lost

at 13.486:1* strip ratio (BCM of overburden to tonnes of coal)
moving 648,095 BCM of overburden allows 48,057 tonnes of coal to be uncovered
@ $49.61/tonne
$2.38M lost
gross revenue
*16:1 BCY of overburden to 1 short ton of coal uncovered is same as 12.23 of overburden to .907 metric tonnes
of coal uncovered. That equates to 13.486 BCM to 1 tonne of coal.
10

Deep pit copper example
793 Truck
20 min cycle = 3 cycles/hr
3 cycles/hr x 250 tons = 750 tons/hr
Difference:
75 tons
75 tons x .75 efficiency = 56.25 tons

56.25 tons x 10 trucks = 562.5 tons/hr
562.5 tons/hr x 6500 hrs = 3,656,250 tons/year lost production
11

Summary Deep pit copper example
10 trucks lose 562.5 tons/hr = 3,656,250 tons of overburden/year
at 4:1 strip ratio that represents 914,063 tons of ore not moved/year
at .05% ore grade and a leach recovery of 65%
5.94M lbs of copper is lost per year
@ $2/lb
$11.88M lost
gross revenue*
* Note: Does not include potential revenue from additional minerals such as molybdenum, gold & silver
12

Deep pit copper example (metric)
793 Truck
227 tonne payload overburden
3 cycles/hr x 227 tonne = 681.0 tonne/hr
2.7 cycles/hr x 227 tonne = 612.9 tonne/hr
Difference:
68.1 tonne

51.1 tonne x 10 trucks = 511 tonne/hr
511 tonne/hr x 6500 hrs = 3,321,500 tonne/year lost production
13

Summary Deep pit copper example (metric)
10 trucks lose 511 tonnes/hr = 3.32M tonnes of overburden/year

at 4:1 strip ratio that represents 829,969 tonnes of ore not moved/year
at .05% ore grade and leach recovery of 65%
5.94M lbs of copper is lost per year
@ $2/lb
$11.88M lost
gross revenue*
* Note: Does not include potential revenue from additional minerals such as molybdenum, gold & silver
14

Gold example
793 Truck
20 min cycle = 3 cycles /hr
2.85 cycles/hr x 250 tons = 712.5 tons/hr
Difference:
37.5 tons
37.5 tons x .75 efficiency = 28.1 tons

28.1 tons x 8 trucks = 224.8 tons/hr
224.8 tons/hr x 6500 hrs = 1,461,200 tons/year lost production
15

Summary Gold example
8 trucks lose 224.8 tons/hr = 1,461,200 tons of overburden/year
at 4:1 strip ratio that represents 365,300 tons of ore not moved/year
at .02 oz per ton of ore and 70% leach recovery
5,114 oz of gold are lost per year
@ $500/oz
$2.56M lost
gross revenue
16

Gold example (metric)
793 Truck
227 tonne payload overburden
3 cycles/hr x 227 tonne = 681 tonne/hr
2.85 cycles/hr x 227 tonne = 646.95 tonne/hr
Difference:
34.05 tonne

25.5 tonne x 8 trucks = 204.3 tonne/hr
204.3 tonne/hr x 6500 hrs = 1,327,950 tonne/year lost production
17

Summary Gold example (metric)
8 trucks lose 204.3 tonnes/hr = 1.328M tonnes of overburden/year

at 4:1 strip ratio that represents 331,988 tonnes or approx. 365,300 tons ore not moved/year
at .02 oz per ton of ore and 70% leach recovery
5,114 oz of gold are lost per year
@ $500/oz
$2.56M lost
gross revenue
18
Haul Road Conditions Major Driver of Cost per Ton

Impact truck safety, cycle time, fuel burned, tire & drive train life
180%
10%
160%
Production
0%
-10%
120%
100%
-20%
80%
-30%
60%
-40%
40%
20%
-50%
Fuel cost
0%
-60%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
Rolling Resistance
19
7%
8%
9%
10%
Production
Fuel Cost
140%

________ example
___ Truck
____ ton payload
___ min cycle = ___ cycles/hr
___ min cycle = ___ cycles /hr
___ cycles/hr x 250 tons = _____tons/hr
___ cycles/hr x 250 tons = _____tons/hr
Difference:
___ tons
___tons x .75 eff = ___ tons

___ tons x 10 trucks = ____tons/hr
____tons/hr x 6500 hrs = ________tons/year lost production
20

________ example (metric)
___ Truck
____ tonne payload
___ min cycle = ___ cycles/hr
___ min cycle = ___ cycles /hr
___ cycles/hr x 227 tonne = _____tonne/hr
___ cycles/hr x 227 tonne = _____tonne/hr
Difference:
___ tonne
___tonne x .75 eff = ___ tonne

___ tonne x 10 trucks = ____tonne/hr
____tonne/hr x 6500 hrs = ________ tonne/year lost production
21
Economics of Haul Road Construction

Road Building Costs

To truly understand haul road economics, the full life-cycle costs must be considered
Road construction
Road removal
Impact on fleet productivity and operations
Road maintenance
Extra fleet operating and maintenance costs
Extra stripping costs (haul road width and grade)
The cost of money
23
Pre-road Construction Preparation
Sub-grade preparation
Ditching/water control
Determining grade
Safety berms
24
Haul Road Construction Costs
Sub-grade preparation
Sub-base material placement and preparation
Base placement and preparation
Surface material placement and preparation
Berm placement
Ditching
25
Cost of Road Removal
Mining
Hauling
Dumping
Dilution of ore or ore loss
26
Haul Road Quality Affects on Fleet Productivity
Road construction quality directly impacts

rolling resistance
Rolling resistance directly impacts truck speed
Truck speed directly impacts fleet productivity
27
Temporary vs. Semi-permanent Roads
Temporary roads
Inferior construction with higher rolling resistance
(3% to 20%) short-lived (days or weeks) and
for access to shovel and dump areas
Semi-permanent roads
Better quality construction less rolling
resistance (1.5% to 5%) service life measured
in months or years
28
Road Maintenance
Road maintenance costs can vary largely

depending on road type (semi-permanent
or temporary)
29
Road Maintenance
Well constructed, well maintained
30
Poorly constructed, poorly maintained
Additional Costs of Fleet Operation on Poor Roads
Real, but hard to quantify

Includes increased fuel and component
wear costs
Fuel
Drive line components
Frames
Suspension
Reduces tire life

Often ignored
Safety
31
Other Considerations for Road Construction
Climate
Truck size
Stripping
Loss of access to ore
32
Full Life-cycle Economics
Temporary, semi-permanent, and permanent

roads all have application in most surface mines
Building and maintenance costs, road life, and
utilization impact the appropriate selection
Road selection type can be confirmed with a full
life-cycle economic evaluation
33
Haul Road Planning and Alignment

Haul Road Classifications
Permanent
Semi-permanent
Temporary
35
Mine Design Involves Determining Haul Road Parameters
Grade
Traffic layout
Traffic patterns
Curves / superelevations
Intersections
Switchbacks
36
Rules of Thumb
If you can comfortably travel your haul roads at

60 km/h (35 mph) in a light vehicle, this is an
indicator of good haul road conditions
Haul roads begin at the loading face and end
at the dump
Maintain good floor conditions at the dump
Maintain good floor conditions at the load area
Travel at reasonable speeds in the dump zone
37
Machine Stopping Distance
Primary consideration in design

Evaluate each machine in the fleet
Road alignment must adjust to the machine
with the longest stopping distance
Sight distance is a key element in determination

Must be sufficient to allow machine to safely stop
before encountering obstructions or hazards
38
Sight Distance for Horizontal and Vertical Curves

The extent of peripheral area visible to the machine operator
Required Stopping Distance
Line of Sight
Sight Distance
Hazard
Vertical Curve
Case A
Must be sufficient for a machine to stop before

reaching a hazard or obstacle
Distance from the operators eye must equal
or exceed required stopping distances

Line of Sight
Sight Distance
Hazard
Vertical Curve
Case B
Sight Distance
Line of Sight
Case C
Vertical Face or Obstruction
Sight Distance
Line of Sight
Trees Removed and Slopes Laid Back
Case D
39
Minimum Road Width
One-way straights and corners

A minimum of 3 widths
is recommended
Two-way traffic
In straights, a minimum of
3 3.5 truck widths
In corners, a minimum of
3.5 4 truck widths
One-way (straights/corners)
Two-way (In straights)
Two-way (In corners)
40
Road Width
Adequate road width
41
Inadequate road width
Left-hand Traffic Pattern

Better visibility of ditch line (improved tire life)
Safer in wet conditions (truck collision)
Recommended:
Left-hand traffic pattern
Right-hand traffic pattern

42
Haul Road Width Examples

Cat off-highway trucks
One Way
(Straights / Corners)
3X
Two Way
(Straights)
3.5 X
Two Way
(In Corners)
4X
Model
Accessories
Overall Width
Ft, In (m)
777F
Dual slope body
21' 4" (6.50)
64' 0" (19.51)
74' 8" (22.75)
85' 4" (26.00)
785C
Dual slope body
21' 9" (6.64)
65' 3" (19.92)
76' 2" (23.24)
87' 0" (26.56)
789C
Dual slope body
25' 2" (7.67)
75' 6" (23.01)
88' 1" (26.85)
100' 8" (30.68)
793D
Dual slope body
25' 3" (7.70)
75' 9" (23.10)
88' 5" (26.95)
101' 0" (30.80)
797B
Flat floor body
30' 0" (9.15)
90' 0" (27.45)
105' 0" (32.00)
120' 0" (36.60)
43
Computing Haul Road Width on Horizontal Curves

Minimum haul road width for curved road segments must account for machine tracking
at front and rear
Single unit
FA
A wider road is required on curves to account

for the overhang occurring at the front and rear
of machine
Road width on curve is determined by:
44
=
=
=
=
=
FA
U
FA
FB
C
Z
FB
W=2(U+F A +F B +Z)
Articulated unit
FB
Lateral clearance between passing haul trucks

Extra width allowance to accommodate difficult
driving conditions
C=Z=(U+F A +F B )/2
Track width of machine (center-to-center tires)

Width of front overhang
Width of rear overhang
Total lateral clearance
Extra width allowance due to difficulty of driving on curves
Cross Fall
On flats
Maintain minimum slope for drainage
With Caution use 2% constant cross fall with
loaded truck on the uphill side
If constant cross fall is not possible, crown haul
roads with minimum slope angle
On grades
Minimal cross fall is required unless rainfall is heavy
2% constant cross fall
45
Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment concerns designing grades and vertical curves that allow adequate
stopping and sight distances on all segments of the haulage road
Grades and curves must be designed for
equipment braking limitations
Hill crests must not impede operator visibility
to hazards within stopping distances
46
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment concerns designing the elements necessary for safe operation
around curves
Proper width
Superelevation
Turning radius
Sight distances
47
Designing for Curves and Switchbacks
Include truck performance as part of the

equation
Strive for consistent truck speed for
optimal performance
Recognize that poorly designed curves produce
slower cycle times and higher overall costs
Consider trucks moving both directions
Empty trucks travel faster
48
Switchbacks: Adequate Curve Radius with Safety Berm
Switchbacks are common in deeper

pit operations
Should have as wide of curve
radius as practical
Tight switchbacks can result in significantly
higher costs
Safety berms tend to increase the switchback
radius and improve safety
If possible, a constant grade should be
maintained through the switchback
49
Designing for Curves and Switchbacks

Use largest radius possible
Use maximum practical radius
Keep constant and smooth as possible
Superelevation
Employ if speeds exceed 15 km/h (10 mph) as per

Performance Handbook
Greater than 10% superelevation should be used
with caution
Turn Radius
m
ft
Speed
16 km/h
(10 mph)
15.2
50
13%
30%
--
--
--
--
--
--
30.5
100
7%
15%
27%
--
--
--
--
--
45.7
150
4%
10%
18%
28%
--
--
--
--
61.0
200
3%
8%
13%
21%
30%
--
--
--
91.5
300
2%
5%
9%
14%
20%
27%
--
--
152.4
500
1%
3%
5%
8%
12%
16%
21%
27%
213.4
700
1%
2%
4%
6%
9%
12%
15%
19%
304.9
1000
1%
2%
3%
4%
6%
8%
11%
14%
50
Speed
24 km/h
(15 mph)
Speed
32 km/h
(20 mph)
Speed
40 km/h
(25 mph)
Speed
48 km/h
(30 mph)
Speed
56 km/h
(35 mph)
Speed
64 km/h
(40 mph)
Speed
72 km/h
(45 mph)
Superelevation
Similar to banking curves on a racetrack

Counteracts centrifugal forces
Allows higher travel speeds on curves
Reduces stress on frame and tires
Reduces chance of spillage
Limited by higher loads on inside wheels,
additional frame stresses, and potential sliding
in slippery conditions
51
Superelevation Run Out
Should be gradual
Apportioned one-third to the curve,
two-thirds to the tangent
Varies with machine speed and total
cross-slope change
52
Machine Speed
(km/hr)
Maximum Change in
Cross-Slope per 30m
of Road Length (%)
16
24
32
40
48
56 & above
Safety Berms
Conventional berm is formed from unconsolidated, homogenous material obtained from
overburden or road construction
Triangular or trapezoidal in shape

Redirect vs. impact and deflect machine
Reduces chance of machine damage if struck
Erosion can cause maintenance difficulties
53
Rules of Thumb for Safety Berm Construction
Recommended height
Minimum of half the wheel height for
conventional berms
Recommended placement
Along the edge of the dump area
Along all haul road edges with gaps for drainage
Where possible, between lanes on curves
Check your local mining regulations
wheel height
54
Other Purposes for Safety Berms
Marking devices for haul road edges

Drainage channels to prevent
uncontrolled erosion
Fixed points of reference for machine operators
Safety devices for smaller maintenance
machines using haul roads
55
Optimal Grade
Smooth, constant grades

Minimize transmission shifts
Maintain higher average speed
Allow more constant braking effort on returns
Reduce spillage
Reduce fuel consumption
Incorrect
56
Correct
Choosing Optimal Grade

Grade Length vs. Slope
Requires consideration of haul road geometry

and truck performance on grade
Factor of time and distance
Basic indicator of optimal grade is cycle time
Distance in a mine must consider both horizontal
and vertical performance parameters
Top
Rise
Bottom
Grade Length vs. Slope

(1,000 ft Lift)
60,000
Time
Truck Performance Specs

Rolling Resistance
Grade Resistance
Machine Weight
57
Distance
Vertical Rise
Slope
Grade Length (ft)
Speed
50,010
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
25,020
16,697
10,050
10,000
0
12,540
2
7,213
6,329
8,350
10
12
Slope (ft of lift per 100 ft)
14
16
Optimal Grade
793D MA1 Rimpull-Speed-Gradeabilty
Gross Weight
100
600
200
800
300
1000
400
A
30%
500
25%
1A
80
1200
lb x 1000
600 kg x 1000
200
15%
20%
150
60
2
40
50
10%
1B
100
Note: Example 9% grade with 2% rolling resistance allows

the 793D MA1 to ascend in mid 2 nd gear @ approx. 12 kph
400
200
Rimpull
Time on grade is determined by:

Distance
Truck performance
Grade resistance
Rolling resistance
Gross machine weight
200
Total Resistance
(Grade plus Rolling)
0
lb x kg x
1000 1000 0
3
5%
4
5
20
A Est. Max Field Empty Weight 156 470 kg (344,960 lb)*

B Max GMW 383 740 kg (846,000 lb)
*Truck equipped with high volume body
58
0
0
10
5
20
10
30
15
40
20
25
Speed
50
30
60
35
70 km/h
40
mph
Caterpillar Large OHT Optimum Haul Road Grades
Target haul roads grade 8% to 10% or less

Minimize haul road rolling resistance wherever
possible 12% effective grade or less
Maintain payloads within the Caterpillar
10-10-20 Truck Payload Policy
59
Steady State Speed on Grade (mph)

793D MA1
%
GMW (lb)
Grade
Resistance
Rolling
Resistance
750K
-50 st
800K
- 25 st
850K
Target Payload
950K*
+50 st
2%
2%
26.07
23.64
22.26
21.39
4%
2%
16.84
16.31
15.98
14.32
6%
2%
12.77
12.11
11.94
10.71
8%
2%
10.77
9.65
8.91
8.57
10%
2%
8.79
8.45
7.90
6.61
12%
2%
7.56
6.69
6.54
6.08
14%
2%
6.52
6.31
5.91
4.86
16%
2%
5.97
5.43
4.66
3.32
*At 120% of Target Payload IAW Caterpillar 10/10/20 Payload Guidelines

60
Steady State Speed on Grade (kph)

793D MA1
%
GMW (kg)
Grade
Resistance
Rolling
Resistance
340K
-45 mt
362K
- 23 mt
385K
Target Payload
430K*
+45 mt
2%
2%
41.97
38.06
35.84
34.44
4%
2%
27.11
26.26
25.73
23.06
6%
2%
20.56
19.50
19.22
17.24
8%
2%
17.64
15.54
14.36
13.80
10%
2%
14.15
13.60
12.72
10.64
12%
2%
12.17
10.77
10.53
9.79
14%
2%
10.50
4.70
9.52
7.82
16%
2%
9.61
8.74
7.50
5.35
*At 120% of Target Payload IAW Caterpillar 10/10/20 Payload Guidelines

61
Optimal Grades
Oil Sands Wheel Group Life
100
Lift, ft.
Oil Sands Haul
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-37%
60
%
5% RR Except as Noted
10% RR
2000
40
10% RR
4000
6000
8000
Haul Distance, ft.

20 Min Cycle Time
62
-21%
80
10000
20
12000
Rated
Rated +10%
Average Payload
Rated +20%
Downhill Time on Grade

793D MA2 Continuous Retarding Performance
Gross Weight
0
50
200
100
300
400
150
500
200
600
250
700
300
800
350
400
30%
Time and distance
Retarding curves are to downhill travel as rimpull

curves are to uphill
Truck speed is determined based on input of
required retarding force, based in turn on net
resistance and GVW
900
15%
10%
4
5%
63
kg x 1000
20%
Note: Example -10% grade with 2% rolling resistance =

-8% effective grade which allows the 793D MA2 to descend
in 3rd gear automatic retarding @ approx. 23 kph
*Truck equipped with high volume body
450
25%
A Est. Field Empty Weight 156 470 kg (344,960 lb)*

B Max GMW 383 740 kg (846,000 lb)
lb x 1000
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Speed
Continuous Grade Length
40
45
km/h
mph
(Grade minus Rolling Resistance
100
Effective Grade
Governed by same basic rules as uphill
Gear Selection for Optimum Retarding Performance

Example of gear selection communication in South America
Sign translation:
LOADED & HAULING DOWNHILL
Brake temperature
TRUCK
110-121 C
GEAR
VELOCITY
KPH
Retarding guide from 793D cab

64
Haul Road Cross Section Design

Four Basic Layers
Sub-grade
Sub-base
Base course
Surface course
Half Running Width = 15m

0.5 m
2% Crowning
Surface Course
Safety Berm
3H:1V
2H: 1V
1.0 m
1.5 m
Base Course
Sub-base
Sub Grade or Pre-existing Surface

Not to Scale
66
Typical Haul Road Cross Section
Haul Road Cross Section Design
Road drain
Poor haul road

Permanent plastic strain due to shear failure
Surface (wearing course)

Base layer
Sub-base layer
Sub-grade fill
Sub-grade (in-situ)
Number of layers may vary according to

specific design and material availability
67
Good haul road

More Severe
Load, Contact Area
GMW
Contact patch area
276%
Ground contact area (sq. in)
382%
Load (lbs)
235%
194%
153%
100%
777D
68
785C
789C
793C
797B
149%
100%
107%
777D
785C
789C
166%
793C
797B
Sub-grade
Consists of native rock or soil, landfill or mine spoil, muskeg, marsh, etc., over which a road is to be placed
Rock or compacted gravel sub-grades require little fill
Soft clays and muskeg require substantial fill
Sub-grades lacking adequate bearing capacity need alterations such as compaction or use of geotextiles

0.5 m
Safety Berm
3H:1V
2H: 1V
1.0 m
1.5 m
Base Course
Sub-base
Sub-grade or Pre-existing Surface

Not to Scale
69
2% Crowning
Surface Course
Sub-base
Consists of either cemented or untreated granular material between the sub-grade and the base course
Primarily composed of run-of-mine and course rock
Provides structural strength to haul road
Also serves to:
Prevent intrusion of sub-grade soil into base course and vice versa
Minimize effects of frost, water accumulation
Provides a working platform for the construction equipment
Layer thickness is determined by bearing characteristics of the sub-grade
0.5 m
Safety Berm
3H:1V
2H: 1V
1.0 m
1.5 m
Base Course
Sub-base
Sub-grade or Pre-existing Surface

Not to Scale
70
2% Crowning
Surface Course
Base Course
Lays directly beneath the road surface

Usually consists of high quality treated or untreated material with proper size distribution
Features more-stringent material specification
Provides main haul road structural strength

0.5 m
Safety Berm
3H:1V
2H: 1V
1.0 m
1.5 m
Base Course
Sub-base

Not to Scale
71
2% Crowning
Surface Course
Surface Course
Uppermost layer that directly contacts machine tires
Generally constructed with fine gravel, but other choices include asphaltic concrete,
specialty surfaces and stabilized earth
Besides creating a smooth running surface, it helps distribute the load for the course below

0.5 m
Safety Berm
3H:1V
2H: 1V
1.0 m
1.5 m
Base Course
Sub-base

Not to Scale
72
2% Crowning
Surface Course
Designing Haul Roads: Theoretical Example
8" Fine Crushed Rock (CBR = 80) 25mm rock size

9" Coarse Crushed Rock (CBR = 80) 100mm rock size
17" Clean Sand Sub-base (CBR =15)
Sandy Clay Sub-grade (CBR = 6)
CBR: California Bearing Ratio a measure of material strength
73
8"
20"
37"
Primary Methods for Determining Layer Thickness
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Previous standard for the mining industry
Resilient modulus method

Newer, more reliable method
74
Haul Road Surfaces

Haul Road Surfaces
Primary haul road considerations include:

Surface material usually crushed gravel
Roughness impact forces are transferred from
tires to truck
Traction and rolling resistance affects safety,
productivity, and component life
Proper compaction key to smooth, long
lasting surface
Dusting properties can become a major
maintenance and safety factor
Maintenance and repair part of overall design
and operating costs
Geo fabric (upper right) is used in some regions
of the world to manage soil moisture and
increase material strength
76
1972 Haul Road

Important in the 70s, critically important today
Capital cost for 120 ton truck appx. $280,000

Capital cost for 150 ton truck appx. $350,000
Diesel cost appx. 10-12 cents/gallon
Operator costs appx. $4.50/hour
Tire cost appx. $3500 - $4000 with
2500 hour life
77
Road Surface Roughness
Significantly reduces truck component life from

impact forces transmitted through the tires
Most truck frame shock loads occur within 150 m
of the face and dump
Match bucket and truck size to minimize spillage;
carefully design and maintain dump zones
Truck frames have an impact fatigue life;

fatigue is cumulative
Highest 10% is more damaging than lowest 90%
78
Traction and Rolling Resistance

Traction Factors
Traction
The friction coefficient between the road surface
and the tire
Rolling resistance
The combination of forces a machine must
overcome to move on a specified surface
An increase in traction typically produces
corresponding decrease in rolling resistance
79
Material
Rubber Tires
Tracks
Concrete
.90
.45
Clay loam, dry
.55
.90
Clay loam, wet
.45
.70
Ruttted clay loam
.40
.70
Dry sand
.20
.30
Wet sand
.40
.50
Quarry pit
.65
.55
Gravel road
(loose not hard)
.36
.50
Packed snow
.20
.27
Ice
(semi-skeleton shoes)
.12
.12
Firm earth
.55
.90
Loose earth
.45
.60
Coal, stockpiled
.45
.60
Soft, Wet Areas
Remove soft and wet spots completely and

refill with good dry material
Without a good repair, these spots will
continually deteriorate
80
Rolling Resistance
Tractive effort required to overcome the retarding

effect between tire and ground
Overcome by machine power exerted to pull the
tire up and out of its own rut
Expressed in terms of percent of road grade
81
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance
For off-highway trucks running radial-ply

tires, assume a minimum rolling resistance of:
1.5% for a hard, well-maintained,
permanent haul road
3% for a well-maintained road with little flexing
4% for a road with 25 mm (1 in) tire penetration
Tire Penetration
In practice, a 5% increase in rolling resistance can result in up to a

10% decrease in production and a 35% increase in production costs
82
High Rolling Resistance
610 mm (24 in) deep tire penetration

30% rolling resistance
Excessive fuel burn
Reduced tire life
Reduced component life
Tire Penetration
83
Rolling Resistance
Performance vs. Rolling Resistance
10,000 ft. Flat Haul
Fuel Cost
Production
180%
10%
160%
0%
-10%
120%
100%
-20%
80%
-30%
60%
-40%
40%
20%
-50%
0%
-60%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
Rolling Resistance
84
7%
8%
9%
10%
Production
Fuel Cost
140%
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance, Percent*
Tires
Underfooting
Bias
Radial
A very hard, smooth roadway, concrete, cold asphalt or dirt surface,

no penetration or flexing
1.5%*
1.2%
A hard, smooth, stabilized surfaced roadway without penetration under load, watered, maintained
2.0%
1.7%
A firm, smooth, rolling roadway with dirt or light surfacing, flexing slightly under load or undulating,
maintained fairly regularly, watered
3.0%
2.5%
A dirt roadway, rutted or flexing under load, little maintenance,

no water 25 mm (1") tire penetration or flexing
4.0%
4.0%
A dirt roadway, rutted or flexing under load, little maintenance,

no water, 50 mm (2") tire penetration or flexing
5.0%
5.0%
Rutted dirt roadway, soft under travel, no maintenance, no stabilization,

100 mm (4") tire penetration or flexing
8.0%
8.0%
Loose sand or gravel
10.0%
10.0%
Rutted dirt roadway, soft under travel, no maintenance, no stabilization,

200 mm (8") tire penetration and flexing
14.0%
14.0%
Very soft, muddy, rutted roadway, 300 mm (12") tire penetration, no flexing
20.0%
20.0%
85
Economic Impact of Rolling Resistance

Increased fuel costs due to slower travel
in lower gears
Increased cost per ton hauled due to
lower productivity
Increased tire costs due to higher wear
and potential failure
Increased equipment and maintenance costs
due to greater wear and fatigue
Reduction Factors for Tire Life

On Site Conditions
Average soil no rock
Reduction Factor
0%
Average soil scattered rock
-10%
Well maintained road with smooth gravel
-10%
Poorly maintained road with ungraded gravel
-30% (or more)
Scattered blast rock
-40% (or more)
86
Rolling Resistance
Distance One Way
6000
5000
4000
0%
4%
6%
8%
10%
2000
1800
15%
1600
1400
1200
3000
1000
2000
600
1000
400
800
LOADED
200
0
10
11
12
Time (minutes)
6000
5000
4000
4%
0% 6% 8%
meters
2200
10%
15%
2000
1800
1600
Total Resistance
(grade plus rolling)
feet
7000
Distance One Way
Impact of rolling resistance on cycle time:

The following examples assume a 1.6m one-way
haul distance and a 1.8 minute combined loading
and dumping time.
Example #1: 4% rolling resistance loaded and
unloaded travel times for the Cat 793C are a
combined time of 4.7 minutes total cycle time =
6.5 minutes
Example #2: 10% rolling resistance loaded and
unloaded travel times to a combined time of 9.5
minutes total cycle time = 11.3 minutes
meters
2200
Total Resistance
(grade plus rolling)
feet
7000
1400
1200
3000
1000
2000
600
1000
400
800
EMPTY
200
0
Time (minutes)
87
10
11
12
Effect of Rolling Resistance on Production

793 truck
250 ton payload
125 tons
Advantage: 14.2%
88
Effect of Rolling Resistance on Production (Metric)

793 truck
227 tonnes payload
4 cycles/hr x 227 tonnes = 908 tonnes /hr
3.5 cycles/hr x 227 tonnes = 795 tonnes/hr
113 tonnes
Advantage: 14.2%
89
Rolling Resistance
Payload
Increase
Wheel Gp/Diff
Life
Wheel Gp/Diff
Cost/Hr
Engine Life &

Cost/Hr
Production
Fuel
Efficiency
Significant
Decrease
Significant
Increase
Insignificant
Change
Slight Increase
Insignificant
Change
Haul Road
Resistance
Increase
Very Significant Very Significant

Decrease
Increase
May or May
Not Be
Significant
Significant
Decrease
Significant
Decrease
Haul Road
Grade
Increase
Very Significant Very Significant

Decrease
Increase
No Change
No Change
No Change
90
Maintenance and Repair
Poorly maintained haul roads increase

operating
costs in terms of:
Tires one tire failure at 50% of typical
longevity equals over 250 hours of 16G motor
grader operation
Equipment rough haul roads dramatically
increase component wear, increasing
maintenance costs
91
Road Deterioration
Weather
Repetitive routes
Spillage
92
Measures to Reduce Haul Road Deterioration
Keep ditches and culverts clear of obstructions

to minimize potential erosion factors
Use different areas of the haulage lane
to avoid rutting
Load machines within limits to prevent spillage
Minimize dust problems with water trucks
or sprinklers
Employ support equipment (motor graders,
wheel dozers, etc.) to maintain cross
slopes, remove spills, and fill and smooth
surface depressions
Operator training
Operators are a key element in maintaining
superior haul road surfaces
93
Drainage
Stagnant Water No Drainage From Pit
Potential for Tire Cuts
Rut Formation High RR

94
Poor Drainage
Mud and potholes cause tire spinning, faster

wear, cuts, reduced traction, and increased
fuel consumption
Structural damage to road bed reduces bearing
capacity, increases rutting and rolling resistance,
and instability on steep slopes
95
Drainage
Adequate drainage must carry away maximum

expected rainfall, with minimum puddling,
potholing or water entry into road sub-base
96
Drainage
Proper drainage arrangements are an important constituent in good haul roads
Road
Edge berm
Drain
Constant cross fall and drain for water

97
Drainage
Safety berms along the roadsides require

appropriately spaced gaps to create outlets
for surface water
Haul road water retention

culvert drain
Berm slot for drainage

98
Ditches
All roads need to be ditched, and

ditches maintained
Rock linings in ditches steeper than 8%
prevent erosion
Ditches should channel water to diversions,
diversions to settling ponds
Staked bales of hay can be used for
temporary silt traps
99
Culverts
Culverts are the most efficient, effective way to control drainage flow
Culverts reduce potential for standing water on road surfaces
Culvert integration in drainage design is affected by:
Location
Sizing
Placement
Inlet/outlet control
State and local construction codes must be considered
100
Dust Control
Watering removes dust hazard and

maintains compaction
Use checkerboard or spot intermittent
pattern on slopes to reduce slippage risk on
braking grades
Spot watering works well for areas with
limited water supply
101
Proper Intermittent Watering Technique
102
Dust Control
Excess water sprinkling
Rut formation high RR

103
Dust Suppressants
Liquid stabilizers and polymers provide:

Dust suppression
Stronger surface course
Waterproofing
Common suppressants include:
Emulsified asphalt
Calcium chloride
Calcium lignosulfonate
Surfactants
104
Haul Road Safety Considerations

Safety Provisions
Median or collision berms

Escape lanes
Appropriate signage
Dedicated small vehicle roads
Safe, optimum gear selection
106
Median or Collision Berms

A
Triangular berms constructed of nonconsolidated screened fines at crucial points

Require adequate spacing to allow time for
proper alignment
Stops the machine by shearing off material
from the top of the berm
Simple and economical to construct
Applicable in any operation, but necessary
only in critical areas in mines with less
severe grades
Downhill
Conventional Berm
Direction of Travel
Median Berm
S = (see table 14 or 15)
Plan
Cut Face
14)
S = (see table
Profile
Downhill
Haulage Lane
Section A - A
107
Sizing Median or Collision Berms

Downhill Haulage
Height is governed by undercarriage height

and wheel track of the largest truck
Smaller trucks will be stopped by the
entrance ramp
Traffic Lane
A/2
C
150'
Plan
Category 1
13 to 25 tons
< 100,000 lb
1:1
Slope
4:1 Slo
p
A/2
11' 12'
3.5' 4'
14' 16'
150'
Profile
Category 2
28 to 50 tons
100,000 200,000 lb
12' 13'
4' 5'
16' 20'
Category 3
55 to 120 tons
> 200,000 400,000 lb
108
1
:
A
13' 18'
5' 6'
20' 24'
18' 32'
6' 11'
24' 44'
Category 4
120 to 250 tons
> 400,000 lb
:
1
lop
1S
Section
1S
lop
e
Escape Lanes
Upgrade
Have good potential for stopping

runaway machines
Are excellent on long sustained grades
May be expensive to construct and maintain
Consist of three basic areas:
Haulage Road
Esc
ape
Downgrade
Lan
e
Entra
nce A
rea
Dec
eler
atio
n
Entrance area
Deceleration area
Stopping area
Partially Cleared
Pulloff Area
Sto
p
Are ping
a
D
Are
a
Plan of haulage road escape lane
Entrance Area
Grade Transition
Deceleration Area
+20%
Stopping
-10%
Area D
-10%
Profile of haulage road escape lane
109
Instructional / Warning Signage
Speed Limit signs

Stop signs
Curve and intersection warning signs
Culvert crossing markers
Traffic control signs
Limited access designators
Safety access indicators
110
Gear Selection for Optimum Grade Performance

Example of gear selection communication in South America
Sign translation:
LOADED & HAULING DOWNHILL
Brake temperature
TRUCK
110-121 C
GEAR
VELOCITY
KPH
Retarding guide from 793D cab

111
Dedicated Roads
Dedicated small vehicle roads should be constructed to keep them from running
on haul roads
Dedicated small vehicle roads should be
constructed where possible
Dedicated roads keep smaller vehicles away
from large haul traffic, enhancing safety
112
Road Design & Maintenance Impact on Tires

Factors Affecting Tire Life

Approximately 80% of all large tires fail before wear out
Wear
7%
Separation
(heat) 11%
Other
8%
Cut
45%
Impact
29%
Source: Actual data, world-class metal mine
114
Find the Pickup Truck
115
Influencers of Tire Life

Site
Conditions
Maintenance
Practices
Climatic influences
Machine maintenance
Haul road design

& maintenance
Tire maintenance
Tire Life
Tire selection
Truck operating
practices
Loading
practices
Load distribution
Load
Speed
Work cycle
Steering geometry
Tire
Defects
Brake heat dissipation

Machine type
Blasting
Operating
Practices
116
Design
Machine
Parameters
Site Conditions
Site Conditions
Climatic Influences
Haul road - Design & Maintenance
Ambient Temperature
Haul Road Construction
Rainfall
Slope
Curve
Crown
Pit/ Loading Face
Dump
Watering
Obstruction & Drainage
Road Width
Design & Maintenance Equipment
117
Ambient Temperature
The higher the ambient
temperature, the lower
the heat dissipation
Lesser heat dissipation

leads to more heat
retention in tire
More heat retention in

tire implies increased
risk of tire reaching
critical temperature
Field observation:
For every 10 C rise or fall in ambient temperature, the inflation pressure changes by 1 psi
118
Excessive Rainfall
Stagnant Water No Drainage From Pit
Potential for Tire Cuts
Rut Formation High RR

119
Design & Maintenance
Factors that affect road design

Equipment that will use the haul road
Weather
Safety conditions
Available road material
Available construction equipment
Expected life of road
Budget
Applicable rules and regulations
120
Load Transfer on Slope
Reaction forces
Grade (%)
Machine weight
% Extra Load Transferred
Overload Transfer on Grade

32.0%
30.0%
28.0%
26.0%
24.0%
22.0%
20.0%
18.0%
16.0%
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
0
121
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
% Grade
Load Transfer on Grade (793 & 797)

% Front Axle Weight on Downhill Grade
Calculations to Effective Weight
% of Weight on Axle
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
0%
5%
10%
15%
% Grade
793-Loaded-Front-Effective Weight
122
797-Loaded-Front-Effective Weight
Influence of Increase in Grade on Tire life

35
% Reduction in Tire Life
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
G=0
G >6% ..<15%
% Grade (G)
123
G>15%
Influence of Load Increase

100
% Change in Tire Life
80
60
40
20
0
L=N
L=+10%
L=+20%
% Change in Load From Normal
124
L=+30%
Which Tire Typically Cost More?
125
Which Tire Typically Cost More?
126
MPH
% GMW Transfer
1-3
14%
3-5
21%
5-7
38%
7-10
56%
+11
75%
Improper Operating Techniques / Abuse
127
Improper Operating Techniques / Abuse
128
Grade and Consistency

Grades of 10% or less are recommended for
maximum tire life
Consistent grades should be maintained
1
10
Incorrect
129
Correct
Load Transfer on Curve
Centrifugal force
of turn
s
iu
d
a
R
Reaction forces
Velocity (speed)
Machine weight
Overload Transfer on Curve - R = 50 m
55.000%
% load increase
50.000%
45.000%
40.000%
35.000%
30.000%
25.000%
20.000%
15.000%
10.000%
5.000%
0.000%
0
130
10
15
20
25
30
Speed (kmph)
35
40
45
50
Superelevation at Radius and Speed

Provides zero lateral tire force
e+f=
V2
15 R
e Superelevation
Superelevation
f Side friction factor (in decimals)
V Velocity
R Radius
* - when using metric units, replace 15 by 127
Turn Radius
Speed km/h (mph)
ft
16 km/h
(10 mph)
24 km/h
(15 mph)
15.2
50
13.0%
30.0%
30.5
100
7.0%
15.0%
27.0%
45.7
150
4.0%
10.0%
18.0%
28.0%
61.0
200
3.0%
8.0%
13.0%
21.0%
30.0%
91.5
300
2.0%
5.0%
9.0%
14.0%
20.0%
27.0%
152.4
500
1.0%
3.0%
5.0%
8.0%
12.0%
213.4
700
1.0%
2.0%
4.0%
6.0%
304.9
1000
1.0%
2.0%
3.0%
4.0%
131
32 km/h
(20 mph)
40 km/h
(25 mph)
48 km/h
(30 mph)
56 km/h
(35 mph)
64 km/h
(40 mph)
72 km/h
(45 mph)
16.0%
21.0%
27.0%
9.0%
12.0%
15.0%
19.0%
6.0%
8.0%
11.0%
14.0%
Load Transfer on a Crown
Reaction forces
Crown angle
Machine weight
% Load Increase
Overload Transfer on Crown

38.00%
36.00%
34.00%
32.00%
30.00%
28.00%
26.00%
24.00%
22.00%
20.00%
18.00%
16.00%
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%
8.00%
6.00%
4.00%
2.00%
0.00%
0
132
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
In Degree
Crown
Wrong crowning
1%-4%
Excess cross fall
1%-4%
2 % constant cross fall

Two-way cross fall
133
Loading Face / Pits

Road surface conditions
Clean, smooth surface conditions extend tire life and reduce chance of road hazard damage
Ideal pit floor
134
Bad floor:
Potential for tire cuts, needs constant attention
Dumps
Good dump area keeps tire cuts at minimum
Constant clearing is necessary
Ideal dump
135
Watering
Excess water sprinkling
Rut formation high RR

136
Proper Intermittent Watering Technique
137
Flexing Factors
Degree of deflection
Load
Frequency of deflection
Speed
Catalyst to deflection
Inflation pressure
138
Average Speed
Average speed / average work day speed / average work shift speed
Average speed =
Total distance run

X
by the truck in
one cycle
No. of cycles
made
Total hours of operation
139
One cycle implies total distance covered by the

truck in one round trip
Total hours of operation is based on the period
that is taken while considering the number of
cycles made
Finally, it is the cycle time observation for the round
trip of the truck
Average Speed (Work Shift Speed)

Example:
Waiting time = 1.5 min

Loading time = 3.0 min
Hauling time = 10.0 min
Dumping time = 1.5 min
Return time = 6.0 min
Average speed =
Total cycle time = 22.0 min

Number of cycles in a 60-minute hour = 60 22 = 2.727 cycles
Working hours per shift = 7

Working shifts per day = 3
Total working hours per day = 7 x 3 = 21 hours
Number of cycles in 1 day = 21 x 2.727 = 57.272 cycles
Cycle distance = 5 km
Total distance run = 57.272 x 5 = 286.363 km
Average work shift speed = 286.363 21 = 13.636 km / hr
140
Total distance run

X
by the truck in
one cycle
No. of cycles
made
Total hours of operation
Strut Pressures
Ensure that the cylinders are properly charged

as per manufacturers recommendations
TPMS systems rely on a properly charged and
maintained struts to operate effectively
Improper strut pressure will negatively
affect tire and frame life
141
Inflation Pressure
Correct inflation pressure provides an optimum shape
to the tire with the following features and benefits
The maximum ground contact area
Maximum traction and braking
Optimum cornering ability
Maximum flotation
The optimum flexibility
Optimum enveloping of road hazards

Optimum sidewall flexibility to minimize the effects of
road irregularities
Reduced heat levels within tire
Minimum heat levels in the tire reduce fatigue

within the tire
To use the longest wearing and most cut resistant
tread compound for the operating conditions
Reduction in downtime
To increase the availability of the equipment

To increase productivity and reduce operating cost
142
Support Equipment
Support Equipment Benefits

Tractors, wheel dozers, motor graders and water trucks
Optimum machine productivity

Minimum impact on major components
Maximum tire life
Maximum haul road life
Maximum operational safety
144
Motor Graders
Motor graders are typically more cost-effective and offer greater speed than track-type
tractors in light applications
Favorable applications
Haul road construction / maintenance
Selected load area cleanup
Selected dump maintenance
Blasting cleanup
Reclamation
Snow removal
145
Motor Graders
Good haul road
Bad haul road
Keeping RR to a minimum and maintaining the superelevation
146
Wheel Dozers
Wheel dozers are typically more cost-effective and offer greater speed than track-type
tractors in light applications
Favorable applications:
Loading area cleanup
Dump maintenance
Haul road construction / maintenance
Blasting cleanup
Reclamation
147
Wheel Dozers
Keep those rocks and

debris out of the way!
148
Track-Type Tractors
Track-type tractors are most cost effective when production dozing at distances up to
500 feet. They have also proven to be highly effective in utility-type applications
Favorable applications
Dedicated waste dump operations
Stockpile operations / steep slopes
Haul road construction
Reclamation
Ripping
149
Track-Type Tractors
Keep those rocks and debris out of the way!
150
Road Building and Repair
151
Software for Aiding Haul Road Design

VIMS System
A Caterpillar exclusive integrated system that monitors machine performance to provide
critical information on a real-time basis
Export data to Application Severity Analysis
(ASA) and Road Analysis Control (RAC) to
quantify haul road conditions
Better payload management to optimize
speed on grade
Check event logs for high brake temperatures,
engine over-speeds, etc.
153
Road Analysis Control (RAC)

A Caterpillar exclusive monitoring tool that uses onboard pressure sensors, RAC monitors
and logs haul road severity to increase truck life and reduce cost/ton
Sensors measure component loading &
impact shock
System identifies haul road problem areas
to avoid and correct
Contributes to improved haul roads to
optimize truck component life, fuel
consumption, and safety
Transmits real time data and GPS locations
to maintenance via radio, if equipped
154
Fleet Production Optimization (FPO)

A Caterpillar exclusive monitoring tool that assesses haul road conditions
Severity Rating Table
Identifies the location of problem areas

Quantifies the severity of the haul using
strut pressure data
Documents transmission shift frequency
and gear on grade
Identifies the frequency and location of
brake/retarder use
10
9
P
A
Y
L
O
A
D
UNACCEPTABLE
RANGE
7
6
5
I
N
D
E
X
4
3
ACCEPTABLE
RANGE
2
1
1
HAUL ROAD CONDITION INDEX
155
10
Fleet Production and Cost (FPC)

A Caterpillar exclusive software package that can simulate truck productivity and estimate
cost-per-ton on your haul road profiles
Use FPC to compare actual cycle times with
predicted values:
Are trucks achieving predicted speed on grades?
Are trucks cycling in predicted cycle times?
Are truck wait times at the loader in the
predicted range?
If predicted values dont match actual times,
investigate possible causes:
Rough/slippery roads causing operators to slow down
Higher rolling resistance than planned/expected
Tight corners forcing machine to slow down
Poor visibility due to dust or obscured views
Pinch points, stop signs at intersections, etc.
156
Use FPC output or photo

of FPC package here
Mine EIA
A Caterpillar exclusive software package that can calculate cost per ton and quantify the
value that Caterpillar and competitive mining trucks, loading tools, and dozers provide
Combines financial and production factors to
simplify determining lowest cost per ton
Change various cost and production factors to
see the effect on overall cost per ton
157
Use FPC output or photo

of FPC package here
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68.1 tonne x .75 efficiency = 51.1 tonne

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

10 trucks lose 511 tonnes/hr = 3.32M tonnes of overburden/year

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

37.5 tons x .75 efficiency = 28.1 tons

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

34.05 tonne x .75 efficiency = 25.5 tonne

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

8 trucks lose 204.3 tonnes/hr = 1.328M tonnes of overburden/year

Haul Road Conditions Major Driver of Cost per Ton

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

___tons x .75 eff = ___ tons

Case Studies The Value of Haul Roads

___tonne x .75 eff = ___ tonne

Economics of Haul Road Construction

Road Building Costs

Pre-road Construction Preparation

Haul Road Construction Costs

Cost of Road Removal

Haul Road Quality Affects on Fleet Productivity

Road construction quality directly impacts

Temporary vs. Semi-permanent Roads

Road maintenance costs can vary largely

Well constructed, well maintained

Poorly constructed, poorly maintained

Additional Costs of Fleet Operation on Poor Roads

Real, but hard to quantify

Reduces tire life

Other Considerations for Road Construction

Full Life-cycle Economics

Temporary, semi-permanent, and permanent

Haul Road Planning and Alignment

Haul Road Classifications

Mine Design Involves Determining Haul Road Parameters

If you can comfortably travel your haul roads at

Travel at reasonable speeds in the dump zone

Machine Stopping Distance

Primary consideration in design

Sight distance is a key element in determination

Sight Distance for Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Required Stopping Distance

Must be sufficient for a machine to stop before

Required Stopping Distance

Required Stopping Distance

Vertical Face or Obstruction

_tons x .75 eff = _ tons

_tonne x .75 eff = _ tonne