Problem Solving & Decision

Making at the Workplace

Objectives
At the end of this session, you will be able to:
Identify problems that are general to every workplace and those
that are specific to your organization
Determine how to solve problems you face as a Supervisor using a
problem solving model or fishbone analysis
Identify the characteristics of an effective problem solver
Determine the ingredients for good decision making
Effectively make collaborative decisions with your team using the
gradients of agreement tool.

Content
1. Introduction to Problem Solving and Decision Making
2. Problem Solving
Types of Problems encountered at the Workplace
Approach to Problem Solving
Characteristics of an Effective Problem Solver
3. Decision Making
Types of Decisions
Ingredients for Good Decision Making
The Decision Making Process
Gradients of Agreement
How to Improve Decision Making

1: Introduction to Problem
Solving & Decision Making

Introduction to problem solving & decision

making
Problem solving
Is bridging the gap between the way things are and the way
they ought to be
It is focused on the past
Usually analytical
Operational
Done at lower levels
A problem is
A present unsatisfactory state that needs to be changed to a desired state
as soon as possible
Some deviation from the expected standard which prevent the
achievement of objectives

Introduction to problem solving & decision

making
Decision making
Is a broader concept
It is the act of making a choice between two or more options
It is focused on the future
Often creative
Directional
Done at senior levels

Problem solving is therefore

part of decision making
a subset of decision making

2. Problem Solving

Types of Problems encounteredat the

Workplace
Problems abound in every workplace due to various
issues such as the need to
collaborate and work with various types of people,
meet targets and deadlines,
work within tight budgets,
gain the endorsement and praise of supervisors
work within the norms and culture of the organization
etc

Types of Problems encounteredat the

Workplace
There are specific problems which are common to every workplace
because workplaces are human institutions and human beings are
the same every where.

What are some of

these problems?
Communication problems
Attitude problems
Interpersonal challenges between supervisor and subordinate or among
your subordinates
Ethical problems
Poor performance
Discrimination and/or harassment

Types of Problems encounteredat the

Workplace
There are another set of problems that are peculiar to an
organization for various reasons for example as a result
of

Policies that are unique to your workplace

Processes that should be followed for various work related issues
Types of clients the organization provides services to
Other constraints at work ie. Inadequate resources, equipment
etc.
List some of the unique
problems you face as
Supervisors in your
workplace

Types of Problems encounteredat the

Workplace
How do you presently resolve such problems?
Do you take any specific steps or you approach the problems
randomly depending on your mood or the person/people causing
the problem? If you do, what are these steps?
Have you observed how your subordinates react/respond to your
approach to solving problems?
What has been your success rate so far?
On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being the least and 10 the highest, rate
yourself on how effective you have been at resolving problems.

Approach to problem solving

To effectively solve problems at the workplace, it is
important to keep the following in mind:
Problems are not manageable when they are conceived in large
global terms:
Everything is going wrong. He will never change. There is no hope.
etc. You need to establish and obtain relevant facts.

Problems should not be allowed to linger.

Addressing issues as they occur is a much strategy than waiting for
things to get better and work themselves out.

Approach to problem solving

Practice fairness in solving problems
Commend or criticize the team, (where relevant) not the
players, and establish a culture of fairness in the decisions you
make and the actions you take
If there is any punishment, let it fit the crime
Not too excessive, not too lenient

Approach to problem solving

There are countless approaches that have been
developed for problem solving, some very simple and
others complicated. Some of these include:
Trial-and-error method :one solution after another is tried until the
problem is solved or appears to be improving.
Experimentation: a theory is tested to enhance knowledge,
understanding , or prediction.
Affinity map : a tool used to identify problems.
Problem solving models
Fishbone analysis

We would look at two of such approaches.

a. The problem solving model

The problem solving model is a step by step approach to
solving problems developed by various writers and
What is the specific problem you are
modified by many more. Some have it
inwith?
5, 6,
and
even
8
faced
Write
this down
in clear
simple language and as objectively
steps. The approach is as follows:
as possible
1- Recognize that there is a problem and define it
2- gather information
Ask:
3- analyze the information
Who is causing it and who does it

Analysis of past solutions

affect
What are the visible signs of a
problem
When does/did it occur
Where does it occur/have an impact
Why did it occur
How Should the ideal situation be?

The problem solving model

4- develop solutions and choose the best
5- implement the solution
6- evaluate the solution

Review the ultimate

success of the action

Identify all the features of an ideal

solution, including the conditions it
has to satisfy
Eliminate solutions which do not
Take the appropriate action
andthe
satisfy
monitor its effects
conditions/requirements
Assess the risks associated with the
'best' solution
Decide to implement this solution

The problem solving model

The importance of understanding and using a model is
that the solution will be the result of facts and analysis
rather than of opinions and feelings.
Identification of the real problem is extremely
important.
If the wrong cause and solution for that cause is
selected, the problem will still be there.

b. Fishbone analysis
What is the fishbone analysis tool?
Fishbone diagram is an analysis tool which provides a systematic way of
understanding problems and the root causes of those problems. The
design of the diagram looks like the skeleton of a fish hence, it is referred
to as the fishbone diagram.
Invented by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese quality control statistician,
also referred to as the Ishikawa diagram or cause-and-effect diagram.
Fishbone diagram is of great value in assisting teams in categorizing the
many potential causes of problems or issues in a systematic way and
helps identify root causes.

Fishbone analysis
It is drawn as part of a brainstorming session, the central
problem is visualized as the head of the fish, with the
skeleton divided into branches showing contributing
causes of different parts of the problem.
It is used when
You need to study a problem to determine the root cause
Want to study all the possible reasons why a process is having
difficulties or problems.
To study why a process is not performing properly and/or
producing the expected results

Fishbone analysis
How is it used?
Draw a fishbone diagram
List the problem/issue to be studied in the head of the fish
Label each bone of the fish. The major categories typically used
are:
The 6 Ms: Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower, Measurement,
Management
The 4 Ps: Place, Procedure, People, Policies
The 4 Ss: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills

Label each bone with one of these categories and for each
category try to identify factors that account for the problem in
each category. Continue asking, Why is this happening? and put
additional factors .

Fishbone analysis
Continue until you no longer get useful information as you ask, Why is
that happening?
Analyze the results of the fishbone after you and your team members
agree that an adequate amount of detail has been provided under each
major category.
Do this by looking for those items that appear in more than one category. These
become the most likely causes.

For those items identified as the most likely causes, the team should
reach consensus on listing those items in priority order with the first
item being the most probable cause.

Use the fishbone diagram on the next slide to solve a key

problem

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Problem Here

me
n
age

ine

Name Your
Cause Here

Ma
n

Name Your
Cause Here

Ma
ch

Ma
n

Name Your
Cause Here

Fishbone Analysis Diagram for 6Ms

Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

6Ms
Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here

d
tho
Me

Name Your
Cause Here

en
rem

ia
ter
Ma

asu
Me

Name Your
Cause Here

Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here

Fishbone analysis
It is possible to customize your fishbone with categories that
best suit or describe your problem. This involves substituting
the traditional categories ie. 6Ms, 4Ps, 4Ss with your own
categories
The 6 Ms: Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower, Measurement,
Management
The 4 Ps: Place, Procedure, People, Policies
The 4 Ss: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills

An example is on the next slide

Fishbone analysis

Fishbone analysis
What was the outcome of your fishbone
analysis?

Characteristics of an effective problem

solver
Effective problem solvers:
have confidence in their ability to learn and their ability to solve
problems.
rely on their own judgment. Though they know there is wisdom
in counsel, they respect their own decision-making abilities.
are not fearful of being wrong or of making mistakes.
are not fast answerers.
are flexible and are often capable of seeing more than one answer
to a question or a problem.

Characteristics of an effective problem

solver
Effective problem solvers
know the difference between fact and opinion and
understand the need for valid evidence.
do not need to have an absolute, final, irrevocable
solution to every problem.
have methods for approaching and solving problems.
think about their thinking and review their problem
solving methods in order to sharpen these tools for
future problems they will encounter

Characteristics of an effective problem

solver
Effective problem solvers
have a "can do" attitude!
consider every position as though it were their
own
avoid the experience trap.
gain commitment from all parties involved
seek win-win solutions

As part of problem solving

The supervisor is not expected to solve ALL problems instead s/he
should know how to
refer the problem to the proper people,
delegate appropriately, and
keep work moving.
The supervisor needs to take complete responsibility for getting the
facts needed.

As part of problem solving

Avoid making a major issue out of each problem.
Good planning can avert many crises
Put each issue into perspective so that alternatives can be
evaluated and an appropriate amount of time can be devoted to
finding the solution.

Avoid inappropriate responses to failure.

Acknowledge mistakes, but do not dwell and agonize over them.
It is more important to learn whatever lesson the mistake can
teach, and then move on.

As part of problem solving

Remember to draw on easily available information.
Have some of the alternatives been tried before?
If so, what was the outcome?
Also consult with other colleagues in the organization
or with outside experts.
Beware of promising too much.
Dont make promises you cant keep to your
subordinates or your boss.

3. Decision Making

Types of Decisions

There are THREE main types of decisions that Supervisors can be faced with:

routine, adaptive, and innovative decisions.

Routine decisions are decisions made when problems are relatively well defined and
common and when established rules, policies, and procedures can be used to solve them.
e.g. shortage of application forms or client assessment forms

Adaptive decisions are decisions made when problems and alternative solutions are
somewhat unusual and only partially understood. e.g. changing working time , work
pattern or methods of assignment

Innovative decisions are decisions made when problems are unusual and unclear and
creative solutions are necessary.

Types of Decisions
What would be your approach to the 3 types of
decisions?
How would you go about making a
Routine decision?
Adaptive decision?
Innovative decision?

Who would you involve?

Would you delegate the decision making?
Would you pass it on to your boss?
Would you consult a colleague or an outside
expert?
Would you ask your team members for their
input?
What process would you use?
Would you insist on what you believe is the best
decision or discard yours in favour of what the
team decides?

Factors affecting decision making

1- experience and knowledge .
2- creating thinking.
3- self concept.
4- stress
5- interpersonal conflict
6- time available, money, energy

Factors affecting decision making

7-Routine versus non routine decision.
8-Risk associated with the decision.
9- Critical nature of work.
10-Written guidelines.
11-Organizations attitude toward decision making.
12-Amount and kind of information available.
13-Degree of acceptance of decision and support.
14-Managers personal ability

Ingredients for Good Decision Making

Follow a systematic process
This process is usually similar to the problem solving process
involving between 5 and 8 steps
Involve the team
Delegate
Usually routine decisions can be delegated

Brainstorm
This gives you a variety of alternatives to a decision
Be creative
Be objective
Dont be emotionally attached to a particular decision even when
it may not be the best.

The decision making process

Characteristics of an effective decision making process:

Effective decisions:

Are conducted in a systematic, comprehensive way of

thinking.
The consequences of the implemented decision are
determined.
They result in positive outcomes and fewer negative
consequences.
Are based on a "Goal-oriented" analysis of the situation, its
problems, and their alternative solutions.

The decision making process

1) Define the problem

State the problem in broad terms

2) Gather information: from where!!!

)

Stakeholders:

Individuals, teams that are affected by the problem or its solution.

Facts & data

Research

Results from experimentation and studies.

Interviews of "experts" and trusted sources.
Observed events, past or present, either personally observed

The decision making process

3) Develop and Weigh Alternatives
Look at the situation in different ways; find a new
perspective that hasnt thought of before. Once you have
listed or mapped alternatives, be open to their possibilities.
After listing possible alternatives, evaluate them without
prejudice, no matter how appealing or distasteful
Consider all criteria. While a particular decision may solve
the problem, it may not work if
resources aren't available, if people won't accept it, or if it
causes new problems

The decision making process

4) Select the best alternative
Don't consider any alternative as "perfect solution." If there were,
there probably wouldn't be a problem in the first place
Consider your intuition, or inner feelings in deciding on a course of
action
Return to a trusted outsider: Is there something you missed?
Does he/she see a problem with your solution?

The decision making process

5) Implement the decision
until it is acted on, a decision is only a good intention

6) Monitor progress

In making good decisions

Work with others why
Supervisors might encourage subordinates to come up with
alternatives to a situation requiring a solution.
Team members can contribute more ideas for alternatives than
an individual working alone.
The team will have a broader perspective since the experience of
the team is broader than an individuals experience.
People involved in the decision will better understand an
alternative selected and also be more likely to support the
decision.

In making good decisions

Involvement of subordinates in decision making provides an
opportunity for improving morale and employee selfesteem.
Recognition of the contributions of people is a powerful
motivator.

Note however that

Group decision making is slower than individual decision making.
There is an opportunity cost to the organization when employees
spend time in meetings rather than selling.
If one person dominates the decision-making process, the value of
group input is lost.

In making good decisions

The supervisor should be wise to involve
subordinates in some but not all decisions.
When a decision must be made quickly, like in an
emergency, the supervisor should probably make it alone.
When the supervisor needs to build support for a solution,
such as in cutting costs or improving productivity, the team
process is useful.
When the consequences of a poor decision are great, the
benefits of the groups collective wisdom are worth the time
and expense of gathering the input

In making good decisions

Since a primary benefit of team decision making is the
variety of opinions and expertise, a supervisor leading a
decision-making meeting should be sure that everyone is
participating.
The supervisor should concentrate on listening and
encouraging the input of others.
If someone is not participating, the supervisor may have to ask
for his or her opinion or thoughts on the matter at hand.
Whenever supervisors ask for inputs from subordinates, you
should be sure you intend to use the information

In making good decisions

Brainstorm
It is another way to generate ideas in a team . It is the process of
coming up with as many ideas as possible.
It may be structured, that is, each person takes a turn suggesting an
idea or unstructured that is individuals call out whatever comes to
mind.
Team members state their ideas no matter how far-reaching they
may seem.
No one may criticize or even comment on an idea until the end of
the process.
All ideas are recorded.
Evaluation or follow-up on ideas takes place after all ideas are
suggested.

In making good decisions

Be creative
Creativity is the ability to bring about something imaginative or
new.
In decision making, creativity means being able to generate
alternatives that are innovative or different from what has been
used in the past.
Thinking outside the box
A fundamental way to become more creative is to be open to your
own ideas.
think of as many alternatives as you can
jot them down
dont evaluate them until after you have finished the list

Gradients of agreement
This is a tool that supports team decision making.
When teams are trying to come to agreement on an issue there is
rarely 100% agreement or 100% disagreement.
Gradients of agreement can help to identify those shades
between the two extremes and send an indicator to the
Supervisor on whether there is strong or weak support for a
decision and therefore whether to go ahead and implement even
if the outcome of the team decision process is a YES.
Is it a strong YES or a weak YES

It allows the team to identify where each person stands on the

issue and builds self awareness and ownership in the decisionmaking process.

Gradients of agreement
Consensus in team decision making is very important.
It means that each team member indicates that they buy-in to the
decision and actively support its implementation, even if they did not
think it was the very best decision.
The definition of consensus may be clear, but the part about yes, I buyin and no, I dont buy-in is a little more complicated.

One reason for the complication is that yes and no can have
many different meanings.
Yes might mean I love this decision or it might mean Ill support this
decision even though I preferred a different proposal.
No might mean Im not yet convinced but Im getting there or it

might mean I could never ever live with that decision.

Gradients of agreement
An expanded vocabulary to account for gradients of yes and no
helps team members better describe their thinking and feelings
about a proposal and be honest.
Team members can register less-than-whole-hearted support without
fearing that their statement will be interpreted as a veto.
It also provides the team with a way to gauge support quickly and with
less ambivalence tension.

The scale has eight gradients of agreement.

from Enthusiastic Support to Strong Objection

Gradients of agreement
Enthusiastic
Support

1. Fully Support: I like it

2. Endorsement with minor concerns: I
basically like it

Lukewarm
Support

3. Agree with reservations: I can live with it

4. Abstain: I have no opinion
5. Stand Aside: I dont like this but I dont want
to hold back the team

Gradients of agreement
Meager Support

6. Disagreement, but willing to go with majority - I want my disagreement

noted, but Ill support the decision.
7. Disagreement, with request not to be involved in implementation - I dont
want to stop anyone else, but I dont want to be involved in implementing it.

Strong
Objection

I cant support the decision

Gradients of agreement
When using the gradients of agreement, write the gradients in a visible
location in the meeting room. You can use numbers to represent the
different gradients e.g., 1 for fully support and 8 for strongly object.
1. Clearly state the issue under discussion
Remember a team may have very scattered results if the topic and focus
of the discussion is vague or poorly understood.
2. Ask team members to express their level of support at this time in the
process.
There are a variety of ways to capture their level of support:
Ask for a show of hands Please raise your hand if you are at #1,
endorsement. Then repeat for #2, etc.

Gradients of agreement
Individual statements
Go around the room, one person at a time, and ask each
person to state which gradient he or she prefers, and why. At
this point you dont want group discussion; only listening for
understanding

Simultaneous declaration
Have each person write the gradient (word or number) of his
or her preference on a large piece of paper. Have everyone
hold up his/her paper. Record the data.

Secret ballot
Have each person write his/her preference on a slip of paper.
When everyone has finished, collect the ballots and tally the
results.

Gradients of agreement
The tool provides team members with a wider choice of vocabulary
to indicate their level of support for a decision and also gives the
supervisor an indication of how strong the support is for a particular
decision
In other words whether to implement it or not.
There may be times when the support is not so strong and this
tool may help you determine this.
Using this collaborative decision-making tool can help the team to
arrive at a decision that has a broad, enthusiastic level of support
and will enhance the commitment and likely success of the decision.

How to improve decision making

1- interpret information in more than one way.
2- set criteria of success beforehand .
3- ask other people
4- scrutinize the decision making process
5- Change your way of deciding and reevaluate your time, and
learning from experience
7- involve the team
8- be rational and objective
Detach yourself emotionally from the decision

How to improve decision making

9. Educate people so they know how to make appropriate decisions.

10.Seek support of top management for decision making at the lowest

possible level

decentralization

12. Managers should deal only with those decisions requiring their level of
expertise, support implementation of decisions, and credit the decision
maker.

13.Delegate decision making such as routine decisions to subordinates to

gain their trust, loyalty and to raise their self-esteem.