THE CELL

The cell is the basic structural

and functional unit of life.
There are different kinds of
cells, such as:

Plant cell

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryote & Eukaryote

Differences

Living Organisms
A living thing is composed of one or
more cells.These units, generally
too small to be seen with the
unaided eye, are organized into
tissues. Atissueis a series of cells
that accomplish a shared function.
Tissues, in turn, formorgans,such as
the stomach and kidney. A number of
organs working together compose
anorgan system.An organism is a

One-celled (single-celled)
Organisms
Single-celled organisms have all the
characteristics of living things.

Many-celled (Multi-cell)
Organisms
Higher animals, including man, are
made up of millions of living cells
which vary widely in structure and
function but have different features
in common.

Cell Structure
All cells are similar in that they contain a
gelatinous substance called protoplasm.
Protoplasm is the viscid, translucent, polyphasic
colloid with water as the continuous phase that
makes up the essential material of all cells. It is
composed mainly of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, and inorganic salts. The protoplasm
surrounding the nucleus is known as the cytoplasm
and that composing the nucleus is the nucleoplasm
(also called karyoplasm).

The cell contains an outer membrane, the

plasma (cell) membrane, a nucleus (a spherical or
oval organelle often near the center) and
cytoplasm, in which are cell organelles (little

Cell Illustration

Plasma Membrane (1)

The plasma membrane is formed from a double

layer of lipids and proteins and composes the cell's
outer membrane. It surrounds the protoplasm of the
cell and helps maintain its shape and structure. The
plasma membrane separates each cell from its
environment. The function of the plasma membrane is
to regulate active transport. This process selectively
allows certain substances to enter and leave the cell
while barring others. It also sends and receives
chemical and electrical messages, including signals for
the cell to manufacture proteins or to divide.

Cell membrane Illustration

Plasma Membrane (2)

The moving of substances in and out of cells is
either a passive process or an active process.
Passive transport requires no energy and can
occur by simple diffusion (the spreading or
scattering of particles), which is the passage of
molecules of one substance from a region where it
is present in high concentration to the molecules
of another substance to form a uniform mixture of
the two. Oxygen, nitrogen, and other small
molecules that can dissolve easily in lipids move
readily back and forth across the bilayer.

Plasma Membrane (3)

Some molecules such as glucose, or sodium
and potassium ions, cannot cross the
membrane on their own by simple diffusion.
They need selective transport proteins or
special channels to allow them in and out of a
cell. In active transport the cell works to bring
molecules in and push them out. The energy
needed for active transport is derived from
molecules of a higher energy phosphate
known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Transport

Nucleus (1)
The nucleus is a small sphere in the central
portion of a cell. It is the biggest, densest and
most obvious structure within the cell and is the
control center of the cell. The nucleus is enclosed
in a double layer of nuclear membrane. At
numerous points these membranes are joined,
forming the rims of circular openings, the water
filled nuclear pores, through which large
molecules e.g. ribonucleic acid (RNA) can pass in
and out of the nucleus. Within the nuclear
membrane is nucleoplasm. It contains one or two
small spherical bodies called nucleoli.

Nucleus (2)
The nucleolus contains the DNA coding. The
function of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is to
pass on the characteristics of one generation
of cells to the next. The DNA is contained by
a number of chromosomes, which consist of
long strands of DNA tightly wound into coils
with proteins called histones. The
combination of DNA and histone proteins is
known as chromation. The nucleolus also
controls the synthesis of some of the cell's
RNA.

Nucleus - Illustration

Nucleus (3)
DNA molecules are too large to pass out of the
nucleus. Hence part of the DNA molecule assembles
(by a process called transcription) a nucleic acid
which is smaller than DNA, called messenger
ribonucleic acid (mRNA) which can pass into the
cytoplasm. mRNA carries the code for polypeptide
and protein assembly to the ribosomes. Amino acids
are also carried to the ribosomes attached to other,
smaller RNA molecules, called transfer RNA (tRNA).
Polypeptides and proteins can then be assembled
on the ribosomes from the amino acids according to
the mRNA code (a process of translation).

DNA & RNA

Nucleotide DNA

Transcription

Chromosomes (1)
A chromosome is a rod-shaped structure
containing genes that is found in the cell nucleus.
It is composed of long strands of DNA with many
proteins attached. In general, all chromosomes
have similar structures with slight variations. The
DNA and protein is found in the arms of the
chromosome and genes are located at specific
sites. Genes are small segments of the DNA
molecule. Each gene provides information required
to determine a protein's amino acid sequence. The
two arms of the chromosome can usually be
identified as the short arm and the long arm.

Genes

Chromosomes (2)
There is a narrow area on each chromosome
called centromere. The centromere is the point
that appears to attach the spindle fibers during
mitosis. Chromosome movement occurs about
centromere. Chromosomes normally occur in
pairs. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in
human cells, for a total of 46. One of each pair is
contributed by the mother and one by the father.
Chromosomes are also responsible for the
determination of sex. Normally, females have two
identical X-chromosomes, whereas males have
one X and Y chromosome.

Chromosome (karyotype) Illustration

XY chromosomes

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance of protoplasm which
occupies the region between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus. It is composed of all the structures
inside a cell, excluding the nucleus. The cytoplasm is
the site of most of the intermediary metabolism of the
cell: food is converted into forms that can be used to
build cell parts; chemical energy is released from food
and transferred to an area where energy is needed in
chemical reactions; specific compounds, such as
proteins, are synthesized to be used within the cell
itself or to be exported to other parts of the organism.
In general, it carries on the work of the cell. The
cytoplasm contains:

Endoplasmic Reticulum (1)

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of
interconnected tubular and sac-like channels.
The space between their walls is continuous
with the space of the nuclear membrane and
can thus transport substances from one part
of the cell to another. One form of ER, rough
or granular endoplasmic reticulum, has
ribosomes attached to its outer surface and
the other form, smooth or agranular, has no
ribosomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (2)

The spaces between both types are
connected. Ribosomes on rough ER
synthesize proteins while smooth ER
is involved in carbohydrate
metabolism. Specialized types of ER
are present in some cells e.g. in
skeletal muscle cells smooth ER
stores calcium ions which are
liberated to initiate contraction of
muscle cells.

EP - Illustration

Endoplasmic Reticulum (3)

The endoplasmic reticulum appears to
serve several functions. Its membranes
provide an increase in surface area where
chemical reactions can occur. The
channels of the reticulum provide both
storage space for products synthesized by
the cell and transportation routes through
which material can travel to other parts of
the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is
also a cell's membrane factory.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (4)

Phospholipids and cholesterol, the main
components of membranes throughout the cell,
are synthesized in the smooth portion of ER.
These compounds form the coating of protein
filled sacs, called vesicles, that break off from ER,
migrate to another organelle, fuse with it, and
then deposit the protein cargo. Most of the
proteins leaving ER are still not mature. They
must undergo further processing in another
organelle, the Golgi apparatus, before they are
ready to perform their functions within or outside
the cell.

Ribosomes (1)
Granules, called ribosomes, shaped
somewhat like balls, are sites of
protein synthesis. Ribosomes are
extremely tiny. A single cell may
contain thousands of ribosomes. Each
ribosome is made of two unequally
sized subunits, which are composed
of at least 40 different proteins and a
form of RNA called ribosomal RNA.

Ribosomes (2)
Within these ribosomes, various
chemicals called amino acids, guided
by signals from the nucleus are
assembled in precisely the right
arrangement to form proteins, the
major part of the organic matter in
living cells. Proteins perform most of
the significant chemical reactions
that occur in cells. They are also
important in maintaining its

Ribosomes - Illustration

Ribosomes (3)
Proteins are long strings of amino acids
attached to one another like beads in a
necklace. Different proteins have different
sequences of amino acids, which are
determined, or coded, by the DNA. In protein
synthesis, an RNA copy of the DNA of a gene
is transported to the cytoplasm, where
ribosomes, other RNAs and enzymes come
together to translate the RNA structure into
a specific amino acid sequence, or protein.

Ribosomes (4)
Protein synthesis occurs through the
interaction of three kinds of RNA
molecules. During translation, a
strand of messenger RNA moves
between the two parts of a ribosome.
It provides the coded message for
the amino acid sequence. The
ribosome "reads" the message of the
mRNA in groups of three, rather than
one nucleotide at a time. These

Protein Synthesis

Ribosomes (5)
Each codon specifies one of twenty different amino
acids or is a signal to start or stop making protein. The
amino acids called for by the mRNA are brought from
the cytoplasm to the ribosome by tRNA. This small
molecule is a connector: one end carries three
nucleotides, known as anticodon, which will join to a
codon in the mRNA according to the rules of base
pairing. The molecule's other end carries an amino
acid. As the mRNA passes through the ribosome, tRNA
brings the correct amino acids in and they are linked
together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.
When all amino acids for a protein chain are formed,
the chain is released.

Ribosomes (6)
Some ribosomes move freely in the cytoplasm and
some are attached to the surface of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The two kinds of ribosomes
play similar roles in the manufacture of proteins.
But while free ribosomes leave the proteins free to
float in the cytoplasm, the bound ribosomes
transfer their finished proteins into the
endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins synthesized by
endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes pass into the ER
lumen then to the Golgi apparatus where they are
processed. Proteins manufactured by free
ribosomes perform their functions in the cytosol.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus consists of a collection of
membrane-enclosed sacs. Proteins from the
endoplasmic reticulum have their structures
altered here. This alteration is a kind of label
which determines whether the protein will be
(a) passed into lysosomes, (b) stored in
secretory granules or (c) inserted into plasma
membrane. Once final processing of the
protein is complete, the proteins are removed
from the Golgi apparatus and are moved to
their final destinations in vesicles.

Golgi Apparatus

Lysosomes (1)
Lysosomes are large single-membrane
structures with no dividing membrane inside.
Lysosomes are manufactured by the
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
They vary in shape and size because they
fuse with other vesicles to carry out their
functions. Lysosomes contain digestive
enzymes that break down large molecules,
such as proteins, fats, and nucleic acids, into
smaller constituents that can be oxidized by
the mitochondria.

Lysosomes (2)
Lysosomes also digest bacteria.
When a bacterium enters the cell,
lysosomes fuse with the vesicle of
engulfed material and release
digestive enzymes to break up the
material. Lysosomes are known to
contain over 40 different enzymes
that can digest almost anything in
the cell, including proteins, RNA,
DNA, and carbohydrates.

Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are also singlemembrane organelles. They contain
(a) enzymes which combine oxygen
and hydrogen to form hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and (b) an enzyme
(catalase) which converts H2O2 to
water.

Mitochondria (1)
Mitochondria are the largest organelles in
an animal cell, after the nucleus. They are
sausage or oval shaped structures
surrounded by a double-layered
membrane. The inner and outer
membranes are separated by a fluid-filled
gap. Mitochondria can change shape quite
readily. They swell or contract in response
to various hormones and drugs and during
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) manufacture.

Mitochondria (2)
Mitochondria are now sometimes referred to as
the powerhouse of cells because these organelles
release the majority of the energy obtained from
food and make it available to the energyconsuming process of the cell. Energy is
generated from sugars and fatty acids.
Specialized enzymes that trap energy from the
breakdown of sugar are imbedded in the inner
layer. Besides supplying energy, mitochondria
also help the concentration of water, calcium, and
other charged particles (ions) in the cytoplasm.

Mitochondrion

Mitochondria (3)
Mitochondria use oxygen to release the
chemical energy stored in food. This
process is called cellular respiration or
catabolism. The biochemical reactions of
cellular respiration fall into two groups: the
carbon pathway, in which sugar is broken
down into carbon dioxide and hydrogen;
and the hydrogen pathway, which
transfers hydrogen to oxygen in stages,
forming water and releasing energy.

Mitochondria (4)
In the hydrogen pathway, the
hydrogen's electrons pass through an
"electron transport chain" made up
of enzymes. The electrons give up
part of their energy as they move
from enzyme to enzyme. This energy
is then stored in molecules of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). In the end,
38 molecules of ATP are formed for
every ever molecule of sugar that is

Mitochondria (5)
Mitochondria have some of their own DNA
molecules and ribosomes and are selfreplicating. They "reproduce" by splitting in
half.
An interesting characteristic of human
mitochondria is the fact that all of a person's
mitochondria are descendants of those of his
or her mother; no paternal mitochondria are
present. This is unlike nuclear DNA which is
equally derived from both parents.

Centrosome
The centrosome consists of two rodlike structures called centrioles
arranged at right angles to one
another. It is concerned with the
synthesis of microtubules, e.g. the
spindle and aster microtubules
present during cell division.

Centrioles - Centrosome

Secretory Vesicles
All secretory substances are formed by the
endoplasmic reticulum - Golgi apparatus
system. They are then released from Golgi
apparatus into the cytoplasm inside storage
vesicles called secretory vesicles or secretory
granules.

In addition to the above-mentioned

organelles the cytoplasm may contain any of
a variety of rod-like filaments, microfilaments
and microtubular structures, depending on the
function of the cell.

Secrettory Vesicles