Physiological Control Systems: Communication,

Integration and Homeostasis

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Calcium as an
intracellular
messenger

Extracellular
fluid

Ca2+

Electrical
signal

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Ca2+ released from

intracellular
Ca2+ stores

Ca2+ binds to
proteins

Chemical
signal
Calmodulin

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ca2+ in cytosol
increases.

Ca2+

Alters protein
activity

Other Ca2+-binding
proteins

Exocytosis

Movement

Figure 6-15

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Extracellular
fluid

Electrical
signal

Ca2+

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-15 (1 of 5)

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Extracellular
fluid

Electrical
signal

Ca2+

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Ca2+ released from

intracellular
Ca2+ stores

Chemical
signal

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-15 (2 of 5)

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Extracellular
fluid

Electrical
signal

Ca2+ released from

intracellular
Ca2+ stores

Ca2+

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Ca2+

Ca2+ in cytosol
increases.

Chemical
signal

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-15 (3 of 5)

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Extracellular
fluid

Electrical
signal

Ca2+

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Ca2+ released from

intracellular
Ca2+ stores

Ca2+ in cytosol
increases.

Ca2+

Ca2+ binds to
proteins

Chemical
signal
Calmodulin

Other Ca2+-binding
proteins

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-15 (4 of 5)

Novel Signal Molecules: Calcium

Extracellular
fluid

Ca2+

Electrical
signal

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
opens.

Ca2+ released from

intracellular
Ca2+ stores

Ca2+ binds to
proteins

Chemical
signal
Calmodulin

Intracellular
fluid

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ca2+ in cytosol
increases.

Ca2+

Alters protein
activity

Other Ca2+-binding
proteins

Exocytosis

Movement

Figure 6-15 (5 of 5)

Novel Signal Molecules: Gases

Nitric oxide (NO)
Activates guanylyl cyclase
cGMP
Acts as neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in brain
Produced by endothelial cells
Diffuses and cause vasodilation

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Novel Signal Molecules: Gases

Carbon monoxide (CO)
Also activates guanylyl cyclase and cGMP
Targets smooth muscle and neural tissue

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Novel Signal Molecules: Lipids

The arachidonic acid cascade produces lipid messengers

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-16

Novel Signal Molecules: Lipids

Leukotrienes
Role in asthma and anaphylaxis

Prostanoids
Prostaglandins
Sleep, inflammation, pain, fever
Thromboxanes
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs prevent
inflammation by inhibiting COX

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Modulation of Signal Pathways

Specificity and competition
Agonist versus antagonist
Multiple receptors for one ligand
Alpha receptor
Vasoconstriction
Beta receptor
Vasodilation

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Modulation of Signal Pathways

Target response depends on the target receptor

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-18

Modulation of Signal Pathway

Up-regulation
Down-regulation
By decreasing the number of receptors
By decreasing the binding affinity
One explanation for drug tolerance

Termination mechanism
Disease and drugs

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Control Pathways: Overview

Physiological control systems keep regulated variables
within a desired range during homeostasis

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-19

Control Systems: Cannons Postulates

Nervous regulation of internal environment
Tonic control
Antagonistic control
One chemical signal can have different effects in
different tissues

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Control Systems: Tonic Control

Tonic control of blood vessel diameter

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-20

Control Systems: Antagonistic Control

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-21a

Control Systems: Antagonistic Control

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-21b

Control Pathways
Comparison of local and reflex control

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-22

Control Pathways: Reflex Control

Steps in a reflex
control pathway

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-23

Control Pathways: Receptors

Multiple meanings of the word receptor

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-24

Control Pathways: Response Loop

A nonbiological response loop
Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

2
Thermometer
7 Water temperature
increases to 30 C

Wire

4 Control
box
6
Heater

5
Wire to heater

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

4 Control box is
programmed
to respond to
temperature below
29 degrees.
5 Signal passes through
wire to heater.

INTEGRATING
CENTER

EFFERENT
PATHWAY

6 Heater turns on.

TARGET OR
EFFECTOR

7 Water temperature
increases.

RESPONSE

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps
1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, step 1

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

2
Thermometer

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 12

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

2
Thermometer
Wire

Control
box

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 13

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

2
Thermometer
Wire

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

4 Control box is
programmed
to respond to
temperature below
29 degrees.

INTEGRATING
CENTER

4 Control
box

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 14

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

2
Thermometer
Wire

4 Control
box

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

4 Control box is
programmed
to respond to
temperature below
29 degrees.
5 Signal passes through
wire to heater.

INTEGRATING
CENTER

EFFERENT
PATHWAY

5
Wire to heater

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 15

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

2
Thermometer
Wire

4 Control
box
6
Heater

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

4 Control box is
programmed
to respond to
temperature below
29 degrees.
5 Signal passes through
wire to heater.
6 Heater turns on.

INTEGRATING
CENTER

EFFERENT
PATHWAY
TARGET OR
EFFECTOR

Wire to heater

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 16

Control Pathways: Response Loop

Reflex steps

1 Water temperature
is 25 C

2
Thermometer
7 Water temperature
increases to 30 C

Wire

4 Control
box
6
Heater

5
Wire to heater

1 Water temperature is
below the setpoint.

STIMULUS

2 Thermometer senses
temperature decrease.

SENSOR
or
RECEPTOR

3 Signal passes from

sensor to control
box through the wire.

AFFERENT
PATHWAY

4 Control box is
programmed
to respond to
temperature below
29 degrees.
5 Signal passes through
wire to heater.

INTEGRATING
CENTER

EFFERENT
PATHWAY

6 Heater turns on.

TARGET OR
EFFECTOR

7 Water temperature
increases.

RESPONSE

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-25, steps 17

Control Pathways: Setpoints

Oscillation around the setpoint
Acclimatization refers to natural adaptation
Acclimation refers to induced adaptation

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-26

Control Pathways: Feedback Loops

Negative and positive
feedback
Feedforward control
refers to anticipatory
responses

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-27a

Control Pathways: Feedback Loops

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-27b

Control Pathways: Setpoints

Circadian rhythms

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-29a

Control Pathways: Setpoints

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-29b

Control Systems: Speed and Specificity

Property
Neural
Specificity
Single target
Nature of signal Electrical
chemical
Speed
Rapid
Duration
Very short
Coding for
Intensity =
stimulus
frequency
intensity

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Endocrine
Most cells
Chemical
Slower
Longer
Intensity =
amount of
hormone

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Some basic
patterns
of neural,
endocrine,
and neuroendocrine
control
pathways

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Simple endocrine
reflex
6

Neuroendocrine reflexes

Stimulus

Receptor
R

R
E

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

T
Efferent
neuron

Endocrine
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

Neurohormone

Response

Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response

Endocrine
cells

E1

Hormone
T

Response

KEY

Response
S
R

Stimulus

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron

Receptor (sensor)

Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Endocrine cell

E2
Hormone #2

Response

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

T
Response

Figure 6-31

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1
Stimulus
Receptor
R

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Efferent
neuron

Neurotransmitter
Target
cell

Response

KEY
S

Stimulus

Receptor (sensor)

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Endocrine cell

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-31, step 1

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Receptor
R

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Efferent
neuron

Neurotransmitter
Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response
T

Response

KEY
S

Stimulus

Receptor (sensor)

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Endocrine cell

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-31, steps 12

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Neuroendocrine reflexes

Receptor
R

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Efferent
neuron

Endocrine
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter
E

Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response
T

Response

KEY

Response
S

Stimulus

Receptor (sensor)

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Endocrine cell

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-31, steps 13

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Neuroendocrine reflexes

Receptor
R

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Efferent
neuron

Neurotransmitter

Endocrine
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

Neurohormone

Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response

Endocrine
cells
Hormone

Response

KEY

Response
S

Stimulus

Receptor (sensor)

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Endocrine cell

Hormone #2
Response

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 6-31, steps 14

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Neuroendocrine reflexes

Receptor
R

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Efferent
neuron

Neurotransmitter

Endocrine
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

Neurohormone

Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response

Endocrine
cells

E1

Hormone
T

Response

KEY

Response
S
R

Stimulus

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron

Receptor (sensor)

Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Endocrine cell

E2
Hormone #2

Response

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

T
Response

Figure 6-31, steps 15

Control Pathways: Review

Simple neural
reflex
1

Neurohormone
reflex
2

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Stimulus

Simple endocrine
reflex
6

Neuroendocrine reflexes

Stimulus

Receptor
R

R
E

Afferent
neuron

CNS
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

T
Efferent
neuron

Endocrine
integrating
center

Neurotransmitter

Neurohormone

Response

Target
cell
Blood
vessel

Response

Endocrine
cells

E1

Hormone
T

Response

KEY

Response
S
R

Stimulus

Efferent pathways
Efferent neuron

Receptor (sensor)

Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
(afferent pathway)

Endocrine cell

E2
Hormone #2

Response

Neurohormone

CNS or endocrine
integrating center
E

Classic hormone

Target cell (effector)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

T
Response

Figure 6-31, steps 16

Summary
Cell-to-cell communication
Electrical signals
Chemical signals
Four methods

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Summary
Signal pathways
Signal transduction
Amplification
Second messengers
Receptor-enzymes
G-proteins
Integrin
Ligand-gated ion channels

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Summary
Novel signal molecules
Calcium
NO
CO
Lipids

Modulation of signal pathways

Agonist versus antagonist
Up-regulation and down-regulation

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Summary
Control pathways
Cannons postulates
Local control
Reflex control
Feedback loops
Negative feedback
Positive feedback
Feedforward control
Circadian rhythms

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings