UNIT-II

Design of Flexible and Rigid

Pavements

overview
Design of flexible pavement
GI Method
IRC revised CBR

Design of rigid pavement

Concepts of ESWL
Stresses due to Loads, temperature, warping, friction & critical
combination
IRC method of Rigid pavement Design

References
IRC-37 2001, 2012
IRC-SP 72-2007
IRC- 58-2002
IRC-SP 62-2004

Design of Flexible Pavement

Design Methods
Empirical methods
Group Index method
CBR method (US)

Analytical methods/ Rational methods/ Mechanistic

methods

Boussinesqs theory
Burmisters theory
Three layered analysis
IRC-37 2001 design

Methods based on pavement performance

AASHTO Method
Asphalt Institute Method

Group Index (GI) Method

Design procedure uses soil classification tests

This method solely relies upon previous experience in different soil
types
Soil is classified into five groups based on Group Index
Group value
Subgra
Index
de
Class
GI varies from 0-20

Excelle
nt

0-1

Good

2-4

Fair

5-9
Poor
GI = 0.2(F-35) + 0.005(F-35)(w l-40) + 0.01 (F-15)(I
p-10)
Where F=%passing through 0.075mm IS sieve or No.200 sieve
expressed
10-20
Veryas whole
number
Poor
Wl =liquid limit expressed as whole number
Ip = plasticity index expressed as whole number

Group Index method

Traffic volume
categories
Light -less than
50CVPD

Group Index (GI) Method

GI and anticipated traffic volumes are used to
determine pavement thickness
Design curves show pavement thickness on x-axis
and GI on y-axis
Use Appropriate design curve and determine total
pavement thickness, base thickness and sub-base
thickness according to GI and traffic volume

P 0.075mm = 55, liquid limit = 50, Plastic limit = 41

Find GI
Ans: GI = 5

A subgrade soil sample has the following properties

soil passing 75microns-60%
Liquid Limit-65%
Plastic Limit-45%
design pavement section by GI method for heavy traffic with over
400CVPD.
GI = 0.2*(a)+0.005(a)(c)+0.01(b)(d)
= 0.2*(60-35)+0.005(60-35)(60-40)+0.01(55-15)(30-10)
= 15.5, say 16
From curves for GI =16, Heavy traffic (400CVPD)
Subbase= 27cm
Surface, base, subbase = 57cm
Surface, base= 57-27=30cm
Base= 15cm
Surface=15cm

Flexible Pavement design - CBR

method
The curves are based on principle that a material of
certain CBR requires minimum thickness of
construction over it
Heavier load needs thicker pavement layer to protect
subgrade
Design curves correlating CBR value with total
pavement thickness were developed for wheel loads
of 3175kg, 4082kg and 5443kg representing light,
medium and heavy traffic respectively
t = {1.75P/CBR A/}1/2
where t= Pavement thickness in cm, P=wheel load in kg,
A=area of contact in cm2 , expression is valid for CBR value
less than 12%

CBR Pavement Design curves

Limitations of CBR method

CBR test is ad-hoc and arbitrary test and result
does not give a direct indication of soil strength
Soaking for 4days to simulate worst field conditions
is arbitrary. In arid climates, such a condition may
lead to over-design
Curves used in design procedure were developed
by each individual organization to suit its own
conditions. Application of such curves by other
organizations need great caution
CBR method of design does not represent a reliable
method of design in case of certain semi-rigid
materials, especially when CBR values are in excess
of 12%

CBR=5%
Wheel load=4100kg
Tyre pressure=6kg/sq.cm
Calculate total thickness of
pavement?
t = {1.75P/CBR A/}1/2
34.89cm
Say 350mm

Concepts of Traffic Loading

ESWL
For the purpose of design multiple-wheels or tandem axles are
converted into an Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
ESWL is defined as the load on single tire that will cause an equal
magnitude of pre-selected parameter (stress, strain, deflection,
or distress) at a given location within specific system to that
resulting from multiple-wheel load at the same location within the
pavement structure

ESAL
stands for Equivalent Standard Axle Load. It is defined as the
Number of Standard Axle load repetetions which causes the same
damage effect of the applied load

ESWL usually used for airport while ESAL is used for highway
because the damage in airport usually caused by the excessive
load while the damage in the highway caused by the high number
of load repetitions

ESWL
ESWL Equal Vertical Stress Concept
Equal maximum subgrade vertical stress

Based on approximation of stress distribution in one-layer systems

For a pavement thickness less than d/2, no stress overlap. Hence,
ESWL will be Pd
At depths of approximately 2Sd, the effect of overlap is such that it
is equivalent to stress caused by 2Pd.

ESWL
For intermediate depths, it is
assumed that a linear relationship
exists between load and thickness
plotted on a log-log scale

Equivalent Axle Load Factor, EALF

4th Power Law
An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per
pass to a pavement by thetype of axle relative to the
damage per pass of a standard axle load. While finding the
EALF, the failure criterion is important. Two types of failure
criterias are commonly adopted: fatigue cracking and
ruttings. The fatigue cracking model has the following
form:
Where, Nf = Number of load repetitions for a certain percentage of
cracking,
t = Tensile strain at the bottom of the binder course,E =
modulus of elasticity, and f1, f2, are constants. If we consider
fatigue cracking as failure criteria, and a typical value of 4 forf 2 ,
then:
where, i indicate ith vehicle, and std indicate the standard axle.

Equivalent Axle Load Factor, EALF

4th Power Law
Now if we assume that the strain is proportional to the wheel
load W,

Similar results can be obtained if Rutting model is used, which

is:

whereNdis the permissible design rut depth (say 20mm), c is the

compressive strain at the top of the subgrade, andf4, f5 are constants.

Once we have the EALF, then we can get the ESAL as given
below
ESAL= Fini
where Fi is EALF for ith axle load group and niis the number of passes
ofaxle load group during the design period

Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN

standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is 100 and 40 KN is
No.of
EALF,
ESAL,
i
10000.Load
FindkN
the equivalent
axleFload?
repetiton
s, ni

Fi*ni

80

1000

(80/80)4

1000

160

100

(160/80)4

1600

40 Fini =1000+1600+625=3225
10000
(40/80)4
625
ESAL=
no.of
number
load repetition expected by
standardof
axles

Let the
120 kN
axle is 1000, 160 kN is 100, and 40 kN is 10,000.
Find the equivalent standard axle load if the
equivalence criteria is rutting. Assume 80 kN as
standard axle load and the rutting model is Nr=f4(c)f5
Load
kN
No.of
EALF, Fi
ESAL,
wheref
4=4.2 andf5=4.5.
repetiton
s, ni

Fi*ni

120

1000

(120/80)4.5

6200

160

100

(160/80)4.5

2263

40 F n =6200+2263+441.9=8904.9
10000
(40/80)4.5
441.9
ESAL=
i i

Flexible Pavement design-IRC:372001

Stresses and strains at critical
locations have been computed using
the linear elastic model F-pave developed under the MORT&H
research scheme R-56 analytical design of flexible pavement.
To give proper consideration to the aspect of performance, the
following three types of pavement distress resulting from repeated
applications of traffic loads are considered :

vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade. If the strain is

excessive, the subgrade will deform resulting in permanent deformation
at the pavement surface during the design life.
horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer. Large
tensile strains cause fracture of the bituminous layer during the design
life.
pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

Flexible Pavement design-IRC:372001

Permanent deformation within Bituminous layer can
be controlled by meeting mix design requirements as
per MORT&H specs
Thickness of Granular and Bituminous layers are
selected using the analytical design approach so that
strains at critical points are within allowable limits
Calculation of tensile strains at bottom of bituminous
layer and relationship for assessing elastic moduli of
subgrade, granular sub-base and base layers are
given in annexure-1
Pavement designs are given for subgrade CBR values
ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging
from 1 to 150msa for an annual pavement
temperature of 350c

Soil Subgrade-CBR
Subgrade in cut or fill should be well compacted.
Expressways, NH, SH, MDR 97% of dry density by heavy
compaction
Other roads - 97% dry density by light compaction

Subgrade in expressways, NHs, SHs should have dry

density more than 1.75gm/cc.
CBR can be determined (IS 2720-16) in lab. Using Static or
dynamic compaction
In-situ CBR is not recommended for design purposes.
Soaking for 4 days may be unrealistically severe moisture
condition, in arid climate throughout year and water table
is too deep, CBR value may be Adopted at natural moisture
content of soil at subgrade depth immediately after
recession of monsoon
Expansive soil is not allowed for subgrade construction

Flexible Pavement design-IRC:372001

Design Life
It is defined in terms of the cumulative No. of standard
axles in msa
It is recommended that pavements for NHs and SHs
should be designed for a life of 15 years. Expressways
and Urban Roads for a longer life of 20 years. For
other categories of roads, a design life of 10 to 15
years may be adopted
If stage construction is adopted, thickness of granular
layer should be provided for the full design period
In case of cemented bases and sub-bases, stage
construction may lead to early failure because of high
flexural stresses in the cemented layer and therefore,

Flexible Pavement design-IRC:372001

Traffic Growth Rate
Present traffic to be projected for end of design life at growth
rates (r) estimated by studying and analyzing the following
data:
Past trends of traffic growth
Demand elasticity of traffic with respect to macro-economic
parameters (like GDP or SDP) and expected demand due to specific
developments and land use changes likely to take place during
design life

If data for annual growth rate of commercial vehicles is not

available a growth rate of 7.5% should be used. (5% as per
IRC:37-2012)
Design wheel load
IRC recommended method considers design traffic in terms
of the cumulative number of standard axles (80kN/8160kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life

Lane Distribution Factor, D

In the absence of adequate and conclusive data, the
following distribution may be assumed
Single-lane roads
design should be based on total No. of commercial vehicles in
both directions.

Two-lane single carriageway roads

design should be based on 50% of the total No. of commercial
vehicles in both directions.

Four-lane single carriageway roads

design should be based on 40% of the total No. of commercial
vehicles in both directions.

Two-lane Dual carriageway roads

design should be based on 75% of the No. of commercial vehicles
in each direction
For dual 3-lane carriageway and dual 4-lane carriageway, the
distribution factor will be 60% and 45% respectively

Vehicle Damage Factor, F

Guidelines use VDF in estimation of cumulative msa for

thickness design of pavements.
VDF is a multiplier to convert the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configuration into the
number of repetitions of standard axle load of magnitude 80
kN.
VDF is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per
commercial vehicle.
VDF varies with the vehicle axle configuration and axle loading.
The equations for computing equivalency factors for single,
tandem and tridem axles given below should be used for
converting different axle load repetitions into equivalent
standard axle load repetitions. (IRC:37-2012)

Vehicle Damage Factor, F

VDF should be arrived at carefully by carrying out specific axle

load surveys on the existing roads. Minimum sample size for
survey is given in Table 4.1.
Axle load survey should be carried out without any bias for
loaded or unloaded vehicles.
On some sections, there may be significant difference in axle
loading in two directions of traffic. In such situations, the VDF
should be evaluated direction wise. Each direction can have
different pavement thickness for divided highways depending
upon the loading pattern

Portable truck wheel scale

Vehicle Damage Factor, F

Axle load spectrum
spectrum of axle load in terms of axle weights of single,
tandem, tridem and multi-axle should be determined and
compiled under various classes with class intervals of 10
kN, such as 10 kN, 20 kN and 30 kN for single, tandem and
tridem axles respectively.
Where sufficient information on axle loads is not available
and the small size of the project does not warrant an axle
load survey, the default values of vehicle damage factor as
given in Table 4.2 may be used.

EALF=(W/Ws)^4
VDF= {V1(w1/ws)^4+V2(w2/ws)^4+}/(V1+V2+)
Legal Single axle Load (IRC58)
10.2Tonne
Legal Tandem axle Load
19Tonne
axle load

no.of axles

EALF

V*EALF

0.001

0.000

0.024

0.024

0.120

0.718

144

0.378

54.491

10

20

0.924

18.477

12

14

1.916

26.820

14

3.549

28.392

16

6.055

24.218

18

9.698

19.396

0.001964

0.000

14

0.03143

0.440

N = Cumulative no. of standard axles to be catered for in the design

in terms of msa
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms
of the number of Commercial Vehicles Per Day (CVPD)
D = Lane distribution factor
F = Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
n = Design life in years
r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles in decimal (e.g., for
5%, r = 0.05)
The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following
formula:
A = P (1 + r)x
P = Number of commercial vehicles as per last count.
x = Number of years between the last count and the year of
completion of construction

 Calculate the design repetitions for ten year

period equivalent to 2268kg wheel load if the
mixed traffic in both directions is 1860CVPD. The
details of distribution of different wheel loads are
as follows. Assume traffic growth rate 7.5%
Wheel load,
kg

% in traffic
volume

2268

25

2722

12

3175

3629

4082

4536

4990

Ans: 36008715

Flexible Pavement design-IRC:37-2001

Design Curves

For intermediate traffic

range, the pavement layer
thicknesses will be
interpolated linearly
for traffic exceeding
150msa
The pavement design
appropriate to 150mas may
be chosen and further
strengthening carried out to
extend the life time based
on pavement deflection
measurement as per IRC-81

Assume r=7.5%,
n=12, A=650CVPD,
F=2.8, D=50%

N=6119441.251=6.12
MSA

From fig.1:
Total pavement thickness=
650mm

From pavement design plate1:

Surface:30mm thick Bituminous Concrete,
Bitumen Base 70mm thick Dense Bituminous
Macadam (DBM),
Granular Base 250mm thick Wet Mix Macadam
(WMM),

Pavement Composition : Sub-base

Sub-base: (GSB)

Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum

CBR of 20% for traffic upto 2 msa

CBR of 30% for traffic > 2msa
layer thickness 150mm upto 10msa
layer thickness 200mm above 10msa

For subgrade soils of low permeability, the GSB

should be provided for full width of formation
If subgrade CBR is < 2%, design for 2% CBR and
provide an additional capping layer of 150mm
thick material having minimum CBR of 10% in
addition to sub-base

Pavement Composition Base and

Surface
Base (Water Bound Macadam, Wet Mix Macadam etc.)
Min thickness 225mm (traffic upto 2 msa)
Min thickness 250mm (traffic > 2 msa)
Material to conform to MORTH and IRC specifications

Bituminous Surfacing (BM, DBM, BC, SDBC, PC)

wearing course or wearing course + binder course
Use of BM (low bitumen content, high air void) to be restricted for traffic <
5 msa
Provide DBM for traffic > 5msa
Equivalence of BM in terms of DBM (10BM = 7DBM)

Selection of binder type and mix type to be made on the basis of

traffic and climatic conditions
For snow-bound areas, bus-stops, round-abouts provide Bituminous
concrete for water proof, stable surface. Mastic Asphalt also can be
used.
Open-graded Premix carpet of thickness upto 25mm thickness not
considered as a structural layer

Converting DBM into other

material
Part of the DBM can be substituted by BM using
the equal flexural stiffness principle
(E1H13) / (1- 12) = (E2H23) / (1- 22)
where E1, H1, 1 and E2, H2, and 2 are the elastic
modulus, thickness and Poisson ratio of DBM and
BM layers respectively
1 mm of DBM = 1.34mm of BM when
EBM=700MPa, EDBM=1700MPa
Poisson Ratio Values
For bituminous mixes at 35/400c is taken as 0.5
For bituminous mixes at 20/300c is taken as 0.35
For granular layer and subgrade is taken as 0.4

IRC:37-2001 Major Limitations

Thickness charts are available for CBR values of
upto 10% only
Design charts are available for only a
pavement temperature of 350C
The contribution of individual component layers is
still not realized fully with the system of
catalogue (block) thicknesses. The same can be
done through use of an analytical tool for
design instead of resorting to thickness charts

r=7.5%,
n=12,
A=435CVPD,
F=3.6,
D=50%