Chapter 6

BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES IN METAL WORKING

Overview of Metal Forming

Rolling
Performed as cold,
warm, and hot
working

Bulk Deformation

Forging
Extrusion
Wire and bar
drawing

Metal Forming
Large group of mfg
processes in which
plastic deformation
is used to change
the shape of metal
workpieces

Mainly cold
working

Sheet
Metalworking

Bending
Shearing
Deep and cup
drawing

Bulk Deformation

(Overview Contd)

rolling
extrusion

Wire/bar drawing
forging

Sheet Metalworking

(Overview

Contd)

Deep/cup drawing

bending

shearing

Formability (workability)
Formability of the material
depends on:
temperature
(1)Process
variables Desirable material properties in
metal forming:
rate
- strain

Low yield strength and high

stress
-
ductility
-

(2) Metallurgical changes (properties changes such as

hardness)during deformation ,formation of voids,
inclusions, precipitation, .... etc.
Ductility increases and yield
strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
Any deformation operation
can be accomplished with
lower forces and power at
elevated temperature

Metal Forming Processes: Homologous Temp.

What is the parameter that determine working temperature???
Metal forming process temperature is measured by Homologus
temperature
Homologous temperatureexpresses thetemperatureof a material
a fraction of its melting pointtemperatureusing the Kelvin scale
T:asworking
temperature such
Stainless steels have good strength and
Process
T/Tm
good resistance to corrosion and
Cold working < 0.3
oxidation at elevated temperatures
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
Tm: melting point of metal (based on
absolute temperature
Hot working > 0.6
e.g. lead scale)

Tm = 327 C
Formed at room temperature
Warm
T/T(20
(20 +273)/(327 + 273) =
0.5working
C),
m =
Most metals
.
strain harden at room temperature according to the
flow curve (n > 0)---- elastic + strain hardening
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain
hardening does not occur
- Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
- The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = .
0

Perfectly plastic

When the material is

heated to sufficiently high
temperature, and tension
test is conducted the
material will exhibit a
perfectly plastic behavior
Perfectly plastic: once the
stress reaches yield stress,
Y, it continues to undergo
deformation at the same
level.
When the load is released,
the material has

Strain or Work Hardening

Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a
material becomes less ductile, harder and stronger
with plastic deformation.
Encountered during cold working.
Percentage cold work can be expressed as:
Ao = original cross-sectional area
A o Ad
%CW
100
Ad = deformed cross-sectional area
Ao

decreases
Ductility
...
. with cold
work
increase
Yield and
tensile
strength

Strain or Work Hardening

Stress

Yield strength (y) increases.

Tensile strength (UTS)
Dislocation density increases with
increases.
CW
Ductility (%EL or %AR)
Motion of dislocations is hindered
decreases.

The influence of cold work on

the stressstrain behavior for
a low-carbon steel.

as their density increases.

Stress required to cause further
deformation is increased.
Strain hardening is used
commercially to improve the yield
and tensile properties.
cold-rolled low-carbon steel
sheet
aluminum sheet
Strain hardening exponent n
indicates the response to cold
work (i.e. larger n means greater
strain hardening for a given

Example: Cold Work Analysis

Copper

What is the tensile strength &

ductility after cold working?
%CW

ro2 r d2
ro2

x100 35 .6%

y (MPa)
800

500

600

100
0

Cu
20

40

% Cold Work
y=300MPa

Do=15.2mm Dd=12.2mm

UTS (MPa)

700

300

Cold
work

60

60

ductility (%EL)

40
20

400

Cu

Cu

200
0

20

40

60

% Cold Work
TS=340MPa

00

20

40

60

% Cold Work
%EL=7%

Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations.
Minimum or no machining usually required (no
oxidation).
These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes.
Advantages
of Cold Forming vs. Hot

Working:
Better accuracy, closer tolerances.
Better surface finish.
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness.
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product.
No heating of work required (less total
energy)

Cold Working
Disadvantages of Cold Forming:
Equipment of higher forces and power required to
shape material.
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale
and dirt (to avoid surface defect during cold
working).
Less ductility and high strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done.
In some heat
operations,
metal
must be
annealed
allow further
ANNEALING-A
treatment
to eliminate
the
effects ofto
cold
deformation.
working.

Purposes of annealing:
relieve stress [residual stress]
- ..
-
increase ductility
- ..
produce a specific structure

Annealing involves three steps

Annealing
Material in this condition (cold
worked) is annealed, changes will
begin to take place. These changes
may be classified under three
headings:
1. Stress relief
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth

Effect of cold working on

properties

The grain
boundaries
here is the
disorder
structure of
high density
dislocation
which replace
by the original

Annealing

Annealing

Annealing
1. Stress relief:
. As the temperature of the material is
raised so the vibrational energies of the
individual atoms are increased and
atomic movements can occur.
Comparatively minor atomic
movements result in the removal of the
residual stresses associated with the
locked-in elastic strains .
.This change, which occur at
comparatively low temperature, has a
negligible effect on the strength and
hardness of the material, and the
microstructure of the metal is
unchanged in its appearance.

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
.When the temperature is raised further, the
process of recrystallization begins. New
unstressed crystals begin to form and grow from
nuclei until the whole of a material has a
structure of unstressed polygonal crystals.

This change in structure is accompanied by a

reduction in hardness, strength and brittleness to
the original values prior to plastic deformation.

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
.The driving force for the recrystallization
process is the release of strain energy
stored in the zones of high dislocation
density.[ grain bondaries]
.The temperature at which recrystallization
occurs is, for pure metal, within the range
from one-third to one-half of melting
temperature (k).
.Recrystallization temperature is not
constant for all material. Why????

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
.Recrystallization temperature is not
constant for all material as its value is
affected by:
1. The a mount of plastic deformation prior
to heating (its lower for very heavily cold
worked metals than for samples of the
same material which have received small
amounts of plastic deformation).
2. The composition (the presence of
impurities or alloying elements will
increase the recrystallization temperature

Annealing

3. Grain growth
.If the temperature is raised further,
grain growth may occur following
the completion of recrystallization,
with some crystal grains growing in
the size at the expense of others by
a process of grain boundary
migration or merge between
small
Small grain
grainsand
havelarge
larger
GB
grain
area than large grains, and
Since the dislocations are
The driving force
concentrated in these large GB
for grain growth is
area, these large GR becomes a
the release of grain
high energy area.
boundary surface
Consequently, these small
energy as the
grains with (large GB area),
amount of total
will have high energy GB areas.
grain boundary
The High energy GB area wants
surface is reduced,

Grain Growth
Growth of new grains will continue at
high temperature.
Grain growth occurs in both metals and
ceramics at elevated temperature.
Involves the migration of grain
boundaries.
Large grains grow at expense of small
ones (small grains merge).
Reduction of grain boundary area
(driving force) for grains to grow. is
the release of strain energy stored
in the zones (grain boundaries) of
high dislocation density.

Reducing
size

Schematic representation
of grain growth via atomic
diffusion.
Why do small grains merge with large grain?
Small grains have larger GB area than large grains.
Since dislocations are concentrated in the GB area, becomes a high
energy area.
So, small grains (large GB area), have high energy GB areas.
High energy GB area wants to go to lower energy GB region (large

Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature.
Warm
working: T/Tm from 0.3
to 0.5
Advantages of Warm Working:
o Lower forces and power than in cold working.
o More intricate work geometries possible.
o Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated.

Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature:
In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing the advantage of hot working above this level [produce
a specific structure]

Why Hot
Capability forWorking?
substantial plastic deformation of the
metal far more than possible with cold working or
warm working.
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temp.
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically).
Ductility is significantly increased.

Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working

Workpart shape can be significantly altered.
Lower forces and power required (equipment).
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed.
Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic.
No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening.

Disadvantages of Hot Working:

Lower dimensional accuracy.
Higher total energy required.

- Due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece.

poor surface finish.

Work surface oxidation (scale),
Shorter tool life
..

Friction in Metal Forming

In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
Metal flow is retarded
Forces and power are increased
Wears tooling faster

Metalworking lubricants are applied to toolwork interface

in many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of
friction.
Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Better surface finish
Removes heat from the tooling

Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing,
etc.)
Hot working or cold working
Work material
Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
Ease of application
Cost

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METAL WORKING

The bulk deformation processes are

important commercially and
technologically
(1) They are capable of significant shape change
when hot working is used,
(2) They have a positive effect on part strength
when cold working is used, and
(3) Most of the processes produce little material
waste; some are net shape processes

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METAL WORKING

1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and bar drawing

Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
change by deforming metal parts whose initial form is bulk
rather than sheet.
Starting forms:

Cylindrical billets
Rectangular billets, slabs and similar shapes
These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause plastic
flow into the desired shape
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Importance of Bulk
Deformation
In hot working, significant shape change
can be accomplished at high temperature .
In cold working, strength is increased during
shape change.
Little or no waste - some operations are near
net shape or net shape processes
The parts require little or no subsequent
machining

Importance of Bulk
Deformation
Hot Working of Metals
Hot working is defined as the process of altering the shape
or size of a metal by plastic deformation with the temperature
above the recrystallization point.
Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the
material to complete grain growth during deformation :and to
keep the ductility high and hardness and strength low.
This is important because being above recrystallization keeps
the materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps
the yield strength and hardness low and ductility high.

Hot Working of Metals

TR = recrystallization
temperature

Chapter
327 -

Importance of Bulk
Deformation
Cold Working
Cold working is the process of altering the shape
or size of a metal by plastic deformation with the
temperature below the recrystallization point.
Hardness and tensile strength are increased with
the degree of cold work (it becomes brittle
depends to cold working percentage) whilst
ductility and impact values are lowered.
Processes include rolling, drawing, pressing, and
extruding, it is carried out below the
recrystallization point usually at room temperature.
The cold rolling and cold drawing of steel

Hot Work

Hot Work vs. Cold

Work

Recrystallization takes place

> 0.5 * Tm
Requires less force
Less residual stresses
Greater deformation possible
Dimensional Variation
[Lower dimensional
accuracy]
Poor Surface Finish
Oxidation of Surfaces
Expensive costs for process
and equipment

Cold Work

NO Recrystallization
Less than <0.3 Tm
Requires more force
Residual Stresses
Strain Hardened
Better Surface Finish
No oxides on the
surface after operation
lower costs for process
and equipment

Four Basic Bulk Deformation

Processes
1. Rolling : slab or plate is squeezed between
rolls

opposing

2. Forging : work is squeezed and shaped between

opposing dies
3. Extrusion work is squeezed through a die opening{has
fixed profile}, thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening

Rolling

Rolling
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness
or changing the cross section of a long
workpiece by compressive forces applied
through a set of rolls, thus the process is
similar to rolling dough with a rolling pin to
reduce its thickness.
Rolling, which accounts for about 90% of all
metals produced by metalworking processes,
was first developed in the late of 1500s.
The basic rolling operation is called flat
rolling, or simple rolling, where rolled
products are flat plate and flat sheet

Rolling

Plates: are generally regarded as having a

thickness greater than 6mm, and are used for
structural applications such as boilers, bridges,
machine structure, girders, and ship hulls.
Plates can be as much as 0.3 m thick for large
boilers, and 100-125 mm thick for warships and
tank armor.
Sheets :are generally less than 6mm thick.
They are used for automobile bodies, aircraft
fuselages, office furniture and kitchen
equipment's.

Rolling
Traditionally, the initial form of material for
rolling is an ingot; Aningotis a material,
usuallymetal, that iscastinto a shape
suitable for further processing [materials
prepared in bulk form]
Rolling is first carried out at elevated
temperature (hot rolling), wherein the
coarse-grained, brittle, and porous cast
structure of the ingot metal is broken down
into a wrought structure, with finer grain
size and improve properties

Grain Structure During Hot

Rolling

Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot
rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility. Cast
structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.

Rolling
Deformation process in which work piece (slab or plate) thickness
is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.

The rotating rolls

perform two main
functions:
Pull the work into the
gap between them by
friction between
workpart and rolls.
Simultaneously
squeeze the work to
reduce cross section.

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

Rolling
One of the first primary processes to convert raw
material into a finished product.
Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls
(shown below is flat rolling)

Rolling
Starting material (blooms, billets, or slabs) are rolled into
structural shape, rails, plate, sheet, strips, bars and rods
by feeding material through successive pairs of rolls.
Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a
thickness greater than 6 and a width no greater than 2xs
the thickness
Billets - square or circular cross section - smaller than a
bloom
Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than 2xs the
thickness), slabs are rolled into plate, sheet, and strips.

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Rolling
Rotating rolls perform two main
functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between work part and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section

Types of Rolling
By geometry of work:
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular crosssection
Shape rolling - a square crosssection is formed into
a shape such as an Ibeam, structural shape, rails.

By temperature of work:
Hot Rolling most common due to the large amount
of deformation required (petroleum and natural gas
pipeline, For common structure of construction,
bridges, ships and automobiles wheels).
Cold rolling produces finished sheet and plate.

Diagram of Flat Rolling

Side view of flat rolling,
indicating before and
after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and
other features.

Flat Rolling

Hot Rolling of a slab into a plate

or sheet

Flat Rolling Terminology

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of

starting stock thickness:
d
r
to

where d = draft; (ho or to) = starting thickness;

(hf or tf )=final to of thickness, and r = reduction

Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
Products

Construction shapes such as I-beams,

L-beams, and U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods

Shape Rolling

Shape Rolling products

L- beam
U- beam
I- beam

Flat Rolling

Shape
Rolling

Sheet steel that

undergoes
acidpicklingwill
oxidize (rust) when
exposed to
atmospheric
conditions of
moderately high
humidity
For this reason, a
thin film ofoilor
similar waterproof
coating is applied
to create a barrier
to moisture in the
air

Rolling equipment's
A variety of rolling equipment is available
having several roll arrangements.
Small-diameter rolls are preferable because
the smaller the roll radius, the lower will be
the roll force.
On the other hand, small rolls deflect under
roll forces and have to be supported by other
rolls to maintain dimensional control

Rolling equipment's
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
1. Two-high two opposing rolls
2. Three-high work passes through rolls in both
directions
3. Four-high backing rolls support smaller rolls
4. Cluster mill multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
5. Tandem rolling mill sequence of two-high mills

Rolling Mill Configurations

( a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high

Rolling Mill Configurations

(d) Cluster mill, (e) tandem rolling mill

Rolling Mill Configurations

Two-high
Rolling mills are typically
used for initial breakdown
passes on the workpiece,
with roll diameter ranging
up to 1400 mm
In two high non reversing
mills as two rolls which
revolve continuously in
opposite direction
therefore smaller and less
costly motive power can
be used.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Three-high
Rolling mills are typically used for
initial breakdown passes on the
workpiece, with roll diameter
ranging up to 1400 mm
It consists of a roll stand with three
parallel rolls one above the other.
Adjacent rolls rotates in opposite
direction. So that the material is
passed between the top and the
middle roll in one direction and the
bottom and middle rolls in opposite
one so that thickness is reduced at
each pass.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Four-high
It has a roll stand with four
parallel rolls one above the other.
The top and the bottom rolls
rotate in opposite direction as do
the two middle rolls. The two
middle are smaller in size than
the top and bottom rolls which
are called backuprolls for
providing the necessary rigidity
to the smaller rolls.
A four high rolling mill is used for
the hot rolling of armor and other
plates as well as cold rolling of
plates, sheets and strips.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Cluster mill
It is a special type of four high
rolling mill in which each of the
two working rolls is backup by two
or more of the larger backup rolls
Is suitable for cold rolling thin
strips of high- strength metals
the rolled product obtained in
cluster mill can be as wide as
5000mm (50 m) and as thin as
0.0025 mm.
The diameter of the smallest roll
can be as small as 6 mm and is
usually made of tungsten carbide
for rigidity, strength and wear

Rolling Mill Configurations

Tandem rolling mill
It is a set of three rolls in parallel alignment so
that a continuous pass may be made (thickness
reduction) through each one successively.
Advantages
Reduced roll consumption
Tight tolerances for strip thickness.
The required strip thickness and flatness can
be achieved more by tandem rolling mill

Thread Rolling

A deformation process used to form

threads on cylindrical parts by rolling
them between two dies.
Important process Used for mass
producing bolts and screws.
Performed by cold working in thread
rolling machines.
Advantages over thread cutting
(machining):
Higher production rates.
Stronger threads due to work
hardening.
Better fatigue resistance due to
compressive stresses introduced by
rolling.

(1) start of cycle

(2) end of cycle

Miscellaneous rolling operations

Thread Rolling
Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies with
greater strength, because of the cold working involved.
Important process for mass producing bolts and screws
Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

Higher production rates

Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling

Thread Rolling
(1) Start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

Ring Rolling
In this process, a small-diameter, thick ring is
expanded into a large diameter, thinner ring by
placing the ring between two rolls.
Because of volume constancy, the reduction in
thickness is accomplished for by an increase in the
diameter of the ring.
This process can be carried out at room
temperature ( cold working) or at elevated
temperature (hot working), depending on the size
and strength of the product.
Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings.

Ring Rolling
The advantages of ring rolling, compared with
other processes for making the same part are :
1. Shorter production runs
2. Material saving
3. Close dimensional tolerances
4. Strengthening through cold working.
.Products: : typical parts made by ring rolling include
large rings for rockets and turbines, steel tires for
railroad, and rings for pipes

Ring Rolling
(1) start, and (2) completion of process

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Piercing Roll
An important hot working process, this process is used to make
long, thick-walled seamless tubing.
Production of Seamless (not welded) thick-wall tubes.
This process is based on the principle that when a round bar is
subjected to a radial compressive forces
Is carried out by an arrangement of rotating rolls. The axes of the
rolls are skewed in order to pull the round bar through the rolls
by longitudinal force of their rotary action.
A mandrel assists the operation by expanding the hole and
sizing the inside diameter of the tube.
Because of the sever deformation that the metal undergoes in this
process, it is important that the stock be of high quality and defect
free.

Piercing Roll

Defects in Rolled parts

Successful rolling practice requires balancing many
factors:
1. Material properties
2. Process variables
3. Lubrications
Material Parameters

ductility
coefficient of friction
strength, modulus
Process Parameters
roller speed
power

Defects in Rolled parts

There may be defects on the surfaces of the rolled plates and
sheets, or there may be structural defects within the material.

A. Structural defects are

those that distort or affect the
integrity of the rolled product.
.Some typical defects are
1. Wavy edges are caused by
bending of the rolls, whereby
the edges of the strip become
thinner than at the center,
because the edges elongate
more than the center [Due to
the deflection of the rolls at
the center]

Defects in Rolled parts

2. Ziper cracks in the center of the strip and
edge cracks: are usually caused by low
material ductility and barreling edges.

Defects in Rolled parts

3. Alligatoring: is a complex phenomena that
results from inhomogeneous deformation of
the material during rolling ( disturbing
equilibrium of the residual stresses)

Defects in Rolled parts

B. Surface defect may result from rust, dirty,
impurities, and other causes related to prior
treatment and working of the material.
.In hot rolling of bloom, billets, and slabs, the
surface is usually preconditioned by various
means, such as by scarfing (using a torch).

Defects in Rolled
parts

Wavy edge: are caused by bending of

the rolls, whereby the edge of the strip
become thinner than at center.

Zipper crack in the center of strip

Edge cracks

Alligatoring: results from

inhomogeneous deformation
(residual stresses)

Other Characteristics
ResidualStressescandevelopinrolledsheetsandplates
becauseofinhomogeneousplasticdeformationofthematerialin
therollgap
Thedeformationbehaviorofinclusionimbeddedinthematerial
matrixisoneofthebasicprobleminthemechanicsof
inhomogeneousdeformation
Smalldiameterrollsorsmallthicknessreductionsperpasstendto
deformthemetalplasticallymoreatitssurfacesthaninthebulk,this
typeofdeformationgeneratescompressiveresidualstressesonthe
surfaceandtensilestressesinthebulk.
Largediameterrollsorhighreductionsperpasstendtodeformthebulk
morethanthesurfaces,becauseoffrictionalconstraintatthesurface
alongthearcofcontact.Thissituationgeneratesresidualstressesthat
areoppositetothoseofthepreviouscase

Residual Stresses in Rolling

Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at
small reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in
rolling with large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the
residual stress patterns.

Defects in Rolled parts

1. In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not
uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the
warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature
difference is great enough cracking and tearing can occur.
2. Fins may be formed on the rolled bars if the metal forces
itself into the clearance between the rolls
3. When the metal is hot rolled, its surface will be not
smooth.
4. Cracks may form during cold rolling if the metal becomes
too much work-hardened during the process.

Roll Flat Terminology

ho = initial thickness of the strip, hf= final thickness, Vr= roll

surfcae speed, Vf= the final speed of the strip (increses as
the strip moves through the roll gap), L = contact length with
the roll

Roll Flat Terminology

The basic flat rolling is shown
in the figure.
A strip of a thickness ho
enters the roll gap and is
reduced to a thickness of hf
by the powered rotating rolls
at a surface speed Vr of the
roll.
To keep the volume rate of
metal flow constant, the
velocity of the strip must
increase as it moves through
the roll gap.

Constantmaterialvolume:

howoLo=hfwfLf
howovo=hfwfvf (flowrate)

Roll Flat Terminology

Since Vr is constant along the roll
gap, but the strip velocity increases
as it passes through the roll gap,
sliding occurs between the roll and
the strip.
At one point along the arc of
contact, the two velocity are the
same, this point is called neutral
point or No-slip point.
To the left of this point, the roll
moves faster than the workpiece,
and to the right, the workpiece
moves faster than the roll.
Because in rolling, the frictional
force on the left of the neutral point
is greater than the frictional force
on the right

Flat Rolling --- Friction

Forces
The rolling process is governed by the
frictional force between the rollers and the
workpiece. The frictional force at the entrance
side is higher than that at the exit side. This
allows the roller to pull the workpiece towards
the exit end.

Friction
The figure illustrate the
pressure distribution in the roll
gap.
The neutral point shifts toward
the exist as the friction force
decreases.
The reason is that when
friction approaches zero, which
means that there is no friction
between the roll and strip, so
the rolls begin to slip ( no need
to pressure to overcome the
frictional forces) and the
relative velocity between the

Flat Rolling Terminology

Friction at the entrance controls the maximum
possible draft.
dmax = Maximum draft (mm)
2
d max R Coefficient of friction
R = Roll radius (mm)
However, depends on lubrication, work-piece
and roller materials and temperature.
0.1 for coldworkin g
0.2 for warmworkin g
0.3 for hotworking
When sticking occurs, can be as high as
0.7

Rolling Analysis
R=rollerradius
p=rollpressure
L=contactlength
=contactangle

v
r

R
p

vo

Assumptions:
Infinitesheet

h
f

vr=rollspeed
ho=initialplatethickness
hf=finalplatethickness
vo=plateentryspeed
Vf=plateexitspeed

Uniform,perfectlyrigidrollers
Constantmaterialvolume:
howoLo=hfwfLf

where,
Lo=initialplatelength
howovo=hfwfvf (flowrate)
Lf=finalplatelength
w=platewidth
The rolls contact the workpiece along an arc defined by
A change in speed between the roller and workpiece occur
along this arc

Friction
vo<vl<vf
Maximum draft, which is
the thickness reduction, is
given as R.
Coefficient of friction
typically:
cold working 0.1
warm working 0.2
hot working 0.4
2

Flat Rolling --- Friction

Forces
Increasingfrictionincreasingforcesand
powerrequirements
Max.draftisdefinedasthedifferencebetween
theinitialandfinalstripthicknessor(h0hf).It
isafunctionofthecoefficientoffriction()and
therollradius(R)

(h0 h f ) R
2

Thehigherthefrictionandthelargertheroll
radius,thehighertheamountofdraft.

Roll Force and Torque

Rollforceaforceperpendiculartothearcofcontact

Therollforceinflatrolling:

.
F LwY

avg

T Fa

a=L/2
L=rollstripcontactlength=
w=thewidthofthestrip(initialwidth)
Yavg=theaveragetruestressofthestripintherollgap

Rolling Analysis
t
ln o
tf

Truestrain

Strainrate

Applyaverageflowstress

Vr ho
ln

L hf
.

K n
Yf
1 n

Approximaterollforce:

Fr

F w pdL Y f wL

where

L R ho h f

TorqueestimatedbyT/roller=~0.5FL

Power=P=T=2FL(fortworollers)

R (ho
hf)/2

Power Requirement
Powerperroll(inS.I.units):_____inKW

2FLN
Power
60,000kW

F=rollforce(N),Linmeters

Powerperroll(inEnglishunits)__________inhp:

2FLN
Power
33,000hp

F=rollforce(lb.)
L=therollstripcontactlength(ft.)
N=therpmoftheroll

True strain and average

flow stress
Truestrain:
1

= Ln(h1/ho)

Theaverageflowstress:
=

K.

1n )/ (n + 1)
1

The last equation can be used in both cases, i.e. when friction is
significant or not.

Roll Force

Influencedby:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Rollradius
Stripwidth
Draft
Coefficientoffriction
Thestrengthofthematerial

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and Power

Anannealedcopperstrip,9in.wideand1.00in.
thick,isrolledtoathicknessof0.80in.inone
pass.Therollradiusis12in.,andtherollsrotate
at100rpm.Calculatetherollforceandthe
powerrequiredinthisoperation.

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and Power

Force F LwYavg
Therollstripcontactlength(L):
L R (h0 h f ) 12(1.00 0.80) 1.55in.
Determinationofaveragetruestress(Yavg)
Theabsolutevalueofthetruestrain:

l
1.00

ln ln
0.223
0.80
l0

TrueStress(psiX10
X1033)

True Stress-True Strain Curves

Figure2.6Truestress
truestraincurvesin
tensionatroom
temperatureforvarious
metals.Thecurvesstartat
afinitelevelofstress:The
elasticregionshavetoo
steepaslopetobeshown
inthisfigure,andsoeach
curvestartsattheyield
stress,Y,ofthematerial.

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force

and Power
Thevalueofthetruestrain:

l
1.00

ln ln
0.223
0.80
l0

Atatruestrainof0.223,thetruestressis40,000psi
Thus,theaveragetruestress(Yavg)isabout26,000
psi

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and Power

Therollforceis:
F LwYavg (1.55)(9)( 26,000) 363,000lb
Thepowerforthetworollsis:

2FLN
2 (363,000)(1.55 / 12)(100)
Power

898hp
33,000hp
33,000

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and Power

A(22.86cm)wide6061Oaluminum
stripisrolledfromathicknessof(2.54
cm)to(2.032cm).forarollradiusof
(30.48cm)androllrpmof100,estimate
thetotalpowerrequiredforthisoperation?

Typical Values for K and n at

Room Temperature
TABLE 2.3
Aluminum
1100O
2024T4
6061O
6061T6
7075O
Brass
7030, annealed
8515, cold-rolled
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated
Copper, annealed
Steel
Low-C annealed
4135 annealed
4135 cold-rolled
4340 annealed
304 stainless, annealed
410 stainless, annealed

K (MPa)

180
690
205
410
400

0.20
0.16
0.20
0.05
0.17

900
580
2070
315

0.49
0.34
0.50
0.54

530
1015
1100
640
1275
960

0.26
0.17
0.14
0.15
0.45
0.10

102