Code-switching

Code-switching
Alteration

between varieties or codes,

across sentences or clause boundaries
often a cover term for code mixing as
well

Code-switching - Gumperz
juxtaposition within the same
speech exchange of passages of
speech belonging to two different
grammatical system or subsystem.

The

Code-switching
Code-switching

is a conversational
strategy used to establish, cross or
destroy group boundaries. To create,
evoke or change interpersonal relations
with rights and obligations

Code-switching-Gal
Code-switching

can arise from

individual language choice or be used
as a major marker for a group speakers
who must deal with more than one
language in their common pursuit gal
1988

CODE SWITCHING / MIXED

LANGUAGE/ BORROWING/
DIGLOSSIA

Distinguishing CS From Other Contact

Phenomena -- Borrowing
Borrowing

morphological and
phonological integration of single
lexeme, as in Japanese word basubaru
(baseball) fully established in a
monolingual Japanese lexicon

Distinguishing CS From Other Contact

Phenomena --Borrowing
But

assimilated loan words (nonce)

borrowing (poplack) can occur
spontaneously in the speech of
bilinguals unlikely in monolinguals
blurs structural boundaries

Distinguishing CS From Other Contact

Phenomena --Borrowing
Some

researches see borrowing and

CS as mixing continuum (MyersScotton, Treffers-Daller)

Distinguishing CS From Other Contact

Phenomena
Mixed

Language CS not composite

hybrid systemmedialingua Ecuador
(Muysken) prototype mixed lg Quechua
morpho-syntax, Spanish lexical items,.
--- unintelligible to monolingual
speakers of either

Code-switching & Diglossia

A diglossic

community is charaterised
by highly predictable domain based
code switching (situational)
Almost one to one relationship between
context and choice.

Code-switching & Diglossia

A diglossic

community is charaterised
by highly predictable domain based
code switching (situational)
Almost one to one relationship between
context and choice.

Distinguishing CS From Other Contact

Phenomena

Diglossia community were codes are

compartmentalized. Diglossic community is
characterised by highly predictable domainbased code switching(Meyerhoff--) I would
prefer to treat CS as distinct form diglossia,
as CS is not necessarily institutionalized in
the way diglossia is, there is more individual
creativity and flexibility involved

CODE- SWITCHING :
REASONS

Why Code-switch?
Social

motivations

Solidarity
Accommodation
Topic
Perceived social and cultural distance
language has a symbolic role -- Heller

Why Code-switch?
Individual

choices

Where am I
Who am I talking to
What kind of impression I want to
communicate to my interlocutors

Why Code-switch?
Overt

prestige at community level

Maker of group membership (solidaritywe both share dual language identity)

Why Code-switch?
Discursive

strategies(Gumperz)
conscious of speakers

Realignment of speech roles

Reiteration
Emphasis
Quotation

Where am I

With family?
With friends?

At work?

At school?

Use pidgin

With teacher?

Is it the boss?
Is my
addressee a
local?
Use English

Decision tree for pidgin/English for six university students

in Honolulu, Hawai

Where am I?

In a
dream?

With
family?

At school?

With teachers?
With friends?

At work?

Public speaking
event?

Formal
situation?

Do I know that my
addressee speaks
pidgin?

Speak pidgin

Speak
English

Decision tree for pidgin/English for four

university students in Honolulu, Hawai

CODE-SWITCHING :
TYPOLOGY

Typology -1
code switching and mixing
(code-switching within a speakers turn
code mixingmany scholars are of
the opinion that they are not
sufficiently different to warrant
completely separate terminology.

Typology 2 Blom & Gumperz

situational and metaphorical
Social meaning Iinguistic structure:
Code-switching in Norway
Blom and Gumperzs (1972)

meaning of linguistic choice

social constraints and linguistic rules
the potential for change in speech patterns in a
community
stability of a valued local form of speech
values expressed through language variety (selfidentity and pride)
rules of alternations that govern a linguistic
repertoire of a community

There are two official languages in Norway: Bokml and Nynorsk

There are many dialects in Norway but they are geographically
divided into four main groups, nordnorsk, trndersk, vestnorsk and
stnorsk. Sometimes innlandsml and srlandsk are also included.
Ranaml (the dialect of Hemnesberget) is one of the dialects of
northern Norway (nordnorsk)
All citizens of Hemnesberget understand both Ranaml and
Bokml completely.
During various everyday interactions they select from the two
varieties depending on the situation and see them as distinct
from each other in that they are never mixed.

Setting, social situation and social events

According to Blom and Gumperz, these three terms are part of how the speaker
processes contextual information used to choose which variety to speak in.
Setting- the way natives classify their environment into distinct locales. There are
many settings such as home, work, restaurants, the public dock, local schools, the
church, the meeting hall.
Social situation Activities carried on by particular people gathered in particular
settings during a particular span of time. (teacher at school, workers at plant)
Social event - Events center around one or a limited range of topics and are
distinguishable because of their sequential structure.

Situational and Metaphorical Switching

(Terms Blom and Gumperz associate with different switching)
Situational switching assumes a direct relationship between language and
social situation (standard vs. dialect in the wrong situation violates norms
and may end the conversation or result in shame)
An example of situational switching: Schoolteachers lecture in in Bokml
and students are not allowed to interrupt. When finished and discussion is
finally encouraged, the speakers will switch to Ranaml.
Metaphorical switching is based on the choice of use of either standard or
dialect depending on situations during which individuals who are interacting
have two or more different relationships with each other.
An example of metaphorical switching: Official community affairs are
considered nonlocal. When locals step up to clerks desks, greetings are in
dialect, but business is conducted in standard. This switch is about particular
kinds of topics and not a change in social situation.

In neither of these cases is there any significant

change in definition of participants mutual rights and
obligations. The choice of either (R) or (B)
generates meanings which are quite similar to those
conveyed by the alternation between ty and vy in the
examples from Russian literature cited by Friedrich
[1972]. We will use the term metaphorical switching
for this phenomenon. [Blom and Gumperz 1972:425]

situational CS= domain (social of

physical settings in which the speaker
finds themselves) based. --- when
constrained by the addressee
addressee based

metaphorical CS when topic dictates the

choice of the code but some topic
may be discussed in either codes but
choice of codes adds distinct flavour
to the topic.
Metaphorical CSchange code as you
redefine the situation

Conclusions
Code selection rules seem to be similar to grammar rules because they operate below the
level of consciousness and may not be able to be influenced by the speakers intentions.
All groups speak both dialect and standard. Switching does occur situationally. When
speaking formally, this is only shown through a shift in lexicon, not through pronunciation
or morphology. The groups shift to (B) phonology and grammar when speaking with Blom
and Gumperz.

The locals see Bokml and Ranaml as two distinct varieties and insist on keeping them
separate depending on local and nonlocal values.
The students have a more difficult time keeping the distinction between dialect and
standard Norwegian. While they do have the same attitude about dialect, their behavior
shows variation, rather than alternation. It may reflect the fact that they have some
nonlocal identity, too.

Ranaml has social value signaling distinctness and identity with the local people.
Bokml is associated with education and power and also shows differences in status and
rank unacceptable in local relations.
In order to interpret speech, the investigator must have background knowledge of local
culture and those areas which generate social meaning in order to look into the social
implications of dialect differences.

social events, defined in terms of participants, setting,

and topic, restrict the selection of linguistic variables
in a manner that is somewhat analogous to syntactic
or semantic restrictions.
teachers reported that they treated lecture versus
discussion within a class as different events. While
lectures were (according to teachers reports)
delivered in the standard Bokml, a shift to the
regional Ranaml was used to encourage open
debate

Some kinds of CS are so institutionalized that

they can even be taught, e.g., those
associated with religious/ceremonial
functions.
Others may be more subtly determined by
speakers who readily observe the norms.
differs from diglossia which is much more
rigid.
D reinforces difference// CS reduces them..
.

Typology 3 Poplack

Alternational (A_B) configuration

relatively separated
thats too much. Sina pesa (Swahili I
cant have anymore)

Typology - Poplack
Congruent lexicalisation 2
languages share a common grammar
structure that can be filled with lexical
items for either.
wan heri gedeelte de ondro beheer fur
gervapende machten. (dutch- saran
one wholepart under control of armed
forces)

Typology - Poplack

Insertion embedding of a constituent

much in common with borrowing
xob pas falsk-an pesa (Persian- swahili
--well then false cop-3pl boy-pl)

Typology - Poplack

Tag-switching used by bilinguals

with limited abilities in one language,
insertion of formulaic expressions from
language B
so well, daccord?
les autres pourraint parler francais
comme lui, ya know?

MARKEDNESS MODEL &

MATRIX LANGUAGE FRAME
WORK

Matrix Language Frame

Production

based approach
Constraint on switches
Matrix language (often the unmarked
choice)
Embedded language (constrained)

Markedness Model
Language

choice is rational
Marks rights and obligations of the
participants in conversation
(RO sets the abstract social codes in
operation between participants in a
conversation)

Markedness Model
Negotiation

principle
Choose the form of your conversation
contribution such that it indexes the set
of rights and obligations which you wish
to be in force between the speaker and
the addressee for the current exchange

Markedness Model- Maxims

The

unmarked-choice maxim.
The marked-choice maxim.
The exploratory choice maxim.

Auxilary Maxims
Virtuosity

maxim
Deference maxim
(considered under unmarked choice
maxim)

CS As Unmarked Choice
Make

your code choice unmarked index

of the unmarked RO set in talk
exchanges when you wish to establish
or affirm that RO set.
Sequential unmarked CS.
Unmarked CS.

Sequential unmarked CS
When

situational factor(s) change RO

set may change.

Nina shida ya lazima sana ya pesa kwa sasa.

Naomba sana unisaide.(switches to English). Well,
this is the first time since I knew you, I think, to
borrow money. I know money can break friendship.
I have a great need of money right now. I ask you to
help me.

Unmarked CS
Common

in bilingual communities in
certain types of interaction
Conditions:

bilingual peers (does not happen in socio-economic

differential)
Type of interaction where the speakers wish to
symbolise their dual membership
Positive evaluation( by the speakers) indexical values
of the varieties
Degree of proficiency is an open question

Unonoziva chiri kumesta.time iya long back,

zvakange zvisinganesta waingoends wonotaura juna
bursar waona kuti ndatora vanhu vakaita so vaita so
waona jana uchida vanhu ve-temporary unotanga
wa-apply ku-ministryof Labour wopihwa vahu vacho
waona.
you know the problem. A long time back, it was easy
because you just go to the bursar and told him that I
take employed people so and so, you saw if you
wanted people for temporary, first of all you had to
apply to the Ministry of Labour, you were given
people
[Harare, ML-Shona,EL-English, 3 participants in early
20s high school education]

Conditions for unmarked CS

a)

b)

Ethnic-group languages are maintained

and/or indigenous lingua fancas have
currency
A former colonial language has be
institutionalised as the unmarked medium of
status raising activities such as higher
education, inter-ethnic communication
between the highly educated, and business
and governmental interactions

The marked-choice maxim

Make

a marked code choice which is

not the unmarked RO set in an
interaction when you wish to establish a
new RO set as unmarked for the
current exchange.
(the speaker dis-identifies with a marked
RO set).

The marked-choice maxim

Use

To increase social distance via

authority/anger.
Ethnically-based exclusion strategy.
Aesthetic effect.

P: Nataka Kwenda Posta

I want to go to the Post Office
C:Kutoka hapa mpaka posta nauli ni senti hamsini
from here to the post office 50 cents
C: Ngojea change yako.
wait for your change
P:Nataka change yangu.
I want my change
C:changeutapata, Dwana.
you will get your change
P: I am nearing my destination
C:do you think I could run away with your change?
[Nairobi Bus, ML Swahili]

The exploratory choice maxim

When

an unmarked choice is not clear,

use CS to make alternate exploratory
choices as candidates for an unmarked
choice and thereby as an index of an
RO set which you favour.

[A local and a visitor, former classmates, k1- high school

equivalent,a mobile businessman, K2 university
student in Nairobi,Kikuyu ML, Kikuyu and Swahili
probably unmarked].
K1:How are you, Mr Karanja?
K2:Fine,niguka.
fine, Ive just arrived.
K1:well please lets take one bottle,ga(swahili) kunodoa
dust wa thought.
a little to remove the dust from our thoughts.
K2: sawa(swahili).
fine.
..

K2: how are things?

K1: Ti muno. Why were you rioting in the Nairobi
campus?
not bad
K2: No maundu ma kumucii.
Just matters of Home.
K1: Even if the country cannot do without you gu-stone
cars ti wega.
even if the country cannot do without you, to stone cars
is not good.

Virtuosity maxim
Switch

to whatever code is necessary in

order to carry on the
conversation/accommodate the
participation of all speakers present.

Deference maxim
Switch

to a code which expresses

deference to others when special
respect is called for by circumstances