SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
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 Synchronous Machines

Outline

1. Physical Description
2. Mathematical Model
3. Park's "dqo" transportation
4. Steady-state Analysis
phasor representation in d-q coordinates
link with network equations
5. Definition of "rotor angle"
6. Representation of Synchronous Machines in
Stability Studies
neglect of stator transients
magnetic saturation
7. Simplified Models
8. Synchronous Machine Parameters
9. Reactive Capability Limits

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 Physical Description of a
Synchronous Machine

Consists of two sets of windings:

3 phase armature winding on the stator
distributed with centres 120 apart in space
field winding on the rotor supplied by DC
Two basic rotor structures used:
salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic
units (low speed)
round rotor structure for thermal units (high
speed)
Salient poles have concentrated field windings;
usually also carry damper windings on the pole
face.
Round rotors have solid steel rotors with
distributed windings
Nearly sinusoidal space distribution of flux wave
shape obtained by:
distributing stator windings and field windings in
many slots (round rotor);
shaping pole faces (salient pole)

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 Rotors of Steam Turbine Generators

Traditionally, North American manufacturers normally

did not provide special damper windings
solid steel rotors offer paths for eddy currents,
which have effects equivalent to that of amortisseur
currents
European manufacturers tended to provide for
additional damping effects and negative-sequence
current capability
wedges in the slots of field windings interconnected
to form a damper case, or
separate copper rods provided underneath the
wedges

Figure 3.3: Solid round rotor construction

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 Rotors of Hydraulic Units

Normally have damper windings or amortisseurs

non-magnetic material (usually copper) rods
embedded in pole face
connected to end rings to form short-circuited
windings
Damper windings may be either continuous or non-
continuous
Space harmonics of the armature mmf contribute to
surface eddy current
therefore, pole faces are usually laminated

Figure 3.2: Salient pole rotor construction

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 Balanced Steady State Operation

Net mmf wave due to the three phase stator

windings:
travels at synchronous speed
appears stationary with respect to the rotor; and
has a sinusoidal space distribution

mmf wave due to one phase:

Figure 3.7: Spatial mmf wave of phase a

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 Balanced Steady State Operation

The mmf wave due to the three phases are:

MMFa Kia cos ia Im cos s t

2 2
MMFb Kib cos ib Im cos s t
3 3

2 2
MMFc Kic cos ia lm cos s t
3 3

MMFtotal MMFa MMFb MMFc

3
KIm cos s t
2

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 Balanced Steady State Operation

Magnitude of stator mmf wave and its relative

angular position with respect to rotor mmf wave
depend on machine output
for generator action, rotor field leads stator field
due to forward torque of prime mover;
for motor action rotor field lags stator field due
to retarding torque of shaft load

Figure 3.8: Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes

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 Transient Operation

Stator and rotor fields may:

vary in magnitude with respect to time
have different speed
Currents flow not only in the field and stator
windings, but also in:
damper windings (if present); and
solid rotor surface and slot walls of round rotor
machines

Figure 3.4: Current paths in a round rotor

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 Direct and Quadrature Axes

The rotor has two axes of symmetry

For the purpose of describing synchronous
machine characteristics, two axes are defined:
the direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the
centre of the north pole
The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees
ahead of the d-axis

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of a 3-phase synchronous

machine

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 Mathematical Descriptions of a
Synchronous Machine

For purposes of analysis, the induced currents in

the solid rotor and/or damper windings may be
assumed to flow in two sets of closed circuits
one set whose flux is in line with the d-axis; and
the other set whose flux is along the q-axis
The following figure shows the circuits involved

Figure 3.9: Stator and rotor circuits

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 Review of Magnetic Circuit Equations
(Single Excited Circuit)

Consider the elementary circuit of Figure 3.10

d
ei
dt
d
e1 ri
dt
Li

The inductance, by definition, is equal to flux linkage

per unit current

LN N2P
i
where
P = permeance of magnetic path
= flux = (mmf) P = NiP

Figure 3.10: Single excited magnetic circuit

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 Review of Magnetic Circuit Equations
(Coupled Circuits)

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.11

d1
e1 r1i1
dt
d2
e2 r2i2
dt
1 L11i1 L 21i2

2 L 21i1 L 22i2

with L11 = self inductance of winding 1

L22 = self inductance of winding 2
L21 = mutual inductance between winding 1 and 2

Figure 3.11: Magnetically coupled circuit

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Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine

The equations are complicated by the fact that the

inductances are functions of rotor position and
hence vary with time
The self and mutual inductances of stator circuits
vary with rotor position since the permeance to flux
paths vary
Iaa L al Igaa

L aa 0 L aa 2 cos 2

2
Iab Iba L ab0 L ab 2 cos 2
3

L ab 0 L ab 2 cos 2
3

The mutual inductances between stator and rotor

circuits vary due to relative motion between the
windings

Iafd L afd cos

Iakd L akd cos

Iakq L akq cos L akq sin
2

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 Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine

Dynamics of a synchronous machine is given by the

equations of the coupled stator and rotor circuits
Stator voltage and flux linkage equations for phase a
(similar equations apply to phase b and phase c)

da
ea R aia pa R aia
dt
a laaia labib lacic lafdifd lakdikd lakqikq
Rotor circuit voltage and flux linkage equations

e fd pfd R fdifd

0 pkd R kdikd

0 pkq R kqikq
fd L ffdifd L fkdikd
2 2
L afd ia cos ib cos ic cos
3 3
kd L fkdifd Lkkdikd
2 2
L afd ia cos ib cos ic cos
3 3
kq Lkkdikq
2 2
L akq ia sin ib sin ic sin
3 3
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 The dqo Transformation

The dqo transformation, also called Park's

transformation, transforms stator phase quantities from
the stationary abc reference frame to the dqo reference
frame which rotates with the rotor
2 2
cos cos cos
3 3
id ia
2
i sin 2 2 ib
sin sin
q 3 3 3 i
i
0
1 1 1 c
2 2 2

The above transformation also applies to stator flux

linkages and voltages

With the stator quantities expressed in the dqo reference

frame
all inductances are independent of rotor position
(except for the effects of magnetic saturation)
under balanced steady state operation, the stator
quantities appear as dc quantities
during electromechanical transient conditions,
stator quantities vary slowly with frequencies in
the range of 1.0 to 3.0 Hz
The above simplify computation and analysis of results.

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 Physical Interpretation of dqo
Transformation

The dqo transformation may be viewed as a means

of referring the stator quantities to the rotor side
In effect, the stator circuits are represented by two
fictitious armature windings which rotate at the
same speed as the rotor; such that:
the axis of one winding coincides with the d-axis
and that of the other winding with the q-axis
The currents id and iq flowing in these circuits
result in the same mmf's on the d- and q-axis as
do the actual phase currents
The mmf due to id and iq are stationary with respect
to the rotor, and hence:
act on paths of constant permeance, resulting in
constant self inductances (Ld, Lq) of stator
windings
maintain fixed orientation with rotor circuits,
resulting in constant mutual inductances

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 Per Unit Representation

The per unit system is chosen so as to further

simplify the model
The stator base quantities are chosen equal to the
rated values
The rotor base quantities are chosen so that:
the mutual inductances between different circuits
are reciprocal (e.g. Lafd = Lfda)
the mutual inductances between the rotor and
stator circuits in each axis are equal (e.g., L afd =
Lakd)

The P.U. system is referred to as the "Lad

base reciprocal P.U. system"
One of the advantages of having a P.U. system with
reciprocal mutual inductances is that it allows the use
of equivalent circuits to represent the synchronous
machine characteristics

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 P.U. Machine Equations in
dqo reference frame

The equations are written with the following

assumptions and notations:
t is time in radians
p = d/dt
positive direction of stator current is out of the
machine
each axis has 2 rotor circuits
Stator voltage equations
e d p d qr R aid

e q p q dr R aiq

e 0 p 0 R a i 0

Rotor voltage equations

e fd p fd R fdi fd

0 p 1d R 1di1d

0 p 1q R 1qi1q

0 p 2q R 2qi2q

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P.U. Machine Equations in dqo Reference
Frame (cont'd)

Stator flux linkage equations

d Lad Ll id Lad ifd Lad i1d
q Laq Ll iq Laq i1q Laq i 2 q

0 L0 i0

Rotor flux linkage equations

fd L ffdifd L f 1di1d L adid

1d L f 1difd L11di1d L adid

1q L11qi1q L aqi2q L aqiq

1q L aqi1q L 22 qL 2q L aqiq

Air-gap torque
T e diq qid

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 Steady State Analysis Phasor
Representation

For balanced, steady state operation, the stator voltages may

be written as:
e a Em cos t

eb Em cos t 2 3

e c Em cos t 2 3
with
= angular velocity = 2f
= phase angle of ea at t=0

Applying the d,q transformation,

e d Em cos t

e q Em sin t

At synchronous speed, the angle is given by = t + 0

with = value of at t = 0

Substituting for in the expressions for ed and eq,

e d Em cos 0

e q Em sin 0

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 Steady State Analysis Phasor
Representation (cont'd)

The components ed and eq are not a function of t because

rotor speed is the same as the angular frequency
of the stator voltage. Therefore, ed and eq are constant
under steady state.

In p.u. peak value Em is equal to the RMS value of terminal

voltage Et. Hence,
e d E t cos 0

e q E t sin 0

The above quantities can be represented as phasors with

d-axis as real axis and q-axis as imaginary axis

Denoting i, as the angle by which q-axis leads E

e d E t sin i

e q E t cos i

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 Steady State Analysis Phasor
Representation (cont'd)

The phasor terminal voltage is given by

~
E t ed je q in the d-q coordinates

E R jE l in the R-I coordinates

This provides the link between d,q components in a

reference frame rotating with the rotor and R, I
components associated with the a.c. circuit theory

Under balanced, steady state conditions, the d,q,o

transformation is equivalent to
the use of phasors for analyzing alternating
quantities, varying sinusoidally with respect to
time

The same transformation with = t applies to both

in the case of machines, = rotor speed
in the case of a.c. circuits, = angular frequency

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 Internal Rotor Angle

Under steady state

e d q idR a

L qiq idR a X qiq idR a

Similarly
e q d iqR a

X did X adifd iqR a

Under no load, id=iq=0. Therefore,

q L qiq 0

d L adifd

ed 0

e q L adifd

~
and E t e d jeq jL adifd

Under no load, Et has only the q-axis component

and i=0. As the machine is loaded, i increases.
Therefore, i is referred to as the load angle or
internal rotor angle.
It is the angle by which q-axis leads the phasor E t
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 Electrical Transient Performance

To understand the nature of electrical transients, let

us first consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 3.24
with e = Emsin (t+). If switch "S" is closed at t=0,
the current is given by
di
eL iR
dt
solving
L t Em
sin t
R
i Ke
Z
The first term is the dc component. The presence of
the dc component ensures that the current does not
change instantaneously. The dc component decays
to zero with a time constant of L/R

Figure 3.24: RL Circuit

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 Short Circuit Currents of a Synchronous
Machine

If a bolted three-phase fault is suddenly applied to

a synchronous machine, the three phase currents
are shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.25: Three-phase short-circuit currents

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 Short Circuit Currents of a Synchronous
Machine (cont'd)

In general, fault current has two distinct

components:
a) a fundamental frequency component which
decays initially very rapidly (a few cycles) and
then relatively slowly (several seconds) to a
steady state value
b) a dc component which decays exponentially in
several cycles
This is similar to the short circuit current in the case
of the simple RL circuit. However, the amplitude of
the ac component is not constant
internal voltage, which is a function of rotor flux
linkages, is not constant
the initial rapid decay is due to the decay of flux
linking the subtransient circuits (high resistance)
the slowly decaying part of the ac component is
due to the transient circuit (low resistance)
The dc components have different magnitudes in the
three phases

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 Elimination of dc Component by
Neglecting Stator Transients

For many classes of problems, considerable

computational simplicity results if the effects of ac
and dc components are treated separately
Consider the stator voltage equations
e d p d q idR a
e q p q d iqR a

transformer voltage terms: pd, pq

speed voltage terms: q , d

The transformer voltage terms represent stator

transients:
stator flux linkages (d, q) cannot change
instantaneously
result in dc offset in stator phasor current
If only fundamental frequency stator currents are of
interest, stator transients (pd, pq) may be
neglected.

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Short Circuit Currents with Stator Transients
Neglected

The resulting stator phase currents following a

disturbance has the wave shape shown in Figure
3.27
The short circuit has only the ac component whose
amplitude decays
Regions of subtransient, transient and steady state
periods can be readily identified from the wave shape
of phase current

Figure 3.27: Fundamental frequency component of short

circuit armature current

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 Synchronous Machine Representation in
System Stability Studies

Stator Transients (pd, pq) are usually neglected

accounts for only fundamental frequency

components of stator quantities

dc offset either neglected or treated separately

allows the use of steady-state relationships for

representing the transmission network

Another simplifying assumption normally made is

setting 1 in the stator voltage equations

counter balances the effect of neglecting stator

transients so far as the low-frequency rotor
oscillations are concerned

with this assumption, in per unit air-gap power

is equal to air-gap torque

(See section 5.1 of book for details)

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 Equation of Motion (Swing Equation)

The combined inertia of the generator and prime-

mover is accelerated by the accelerating torque:

dm
J Ta Tm Te
dt

where

Tm = mechanical torque in N-M

Te = electromagnetic torque in N-m

J = combined moment of inertia of generator

and turbine, kgm2
m = angular velocity of the rotor in mech. rad/s

t = time in seconds

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 Equation of Motion (cont'd)

The above equation can be normalized in terms of

per unit inertia constant H
1 J20m
H
2 VA base
where
0m = rated angular velocity of the rotor in
mechanical radians per second
Equation of motion in per unit form is

d r
2H Tm Te
dt
where
m
r = per unit rotor angular velocity
0m
Tm0m
Tm = per unit mechanical torque
VA base

Te 0m
Te = per unit electromechanical torque
VA base

Often inertia constant M = 2H used

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 Magnetic Saturation

Basic equations of synchronous machines

developed so far ignored effects of saturation
analysis simple and manageable
rigorous treat a futile exercise
Practical approach must be based on semi-
heuristic reasoning and judiciously chosen
approximations
consideration to simplicity, data availability, and
accuracy of results
Magnetic circuit data essential to treatment of
saturation given by the open-circuit characteristic
(OCC)

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 Assumptions Normally Made in the
Representation of Saturation

Leakage inductances are independent of saturation

Saturation under loaded conditions is the same as
under no-load conditions
Leakage fluxes do not contribute to iron saturation
degree of saturation determined by the air-gap
flux
For salient pole machines, there is no saturation in
the q-axis
flux is largely in air
For round rotor machines, q-axis saturation
assumed to be given by OCC
reluctance of magnetic path assumed
homogeneous around rotor periphery

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 The effects of saturation is represented as

L ad K sdL adu (3.182)

L aq K sqL aqu (3.183)

Ladu and Laqu are unsaturated values. The saturation

factors Ksd and Ksq identify the degrees of
saturation.
As illustrated in Figure 3.29, the d-axis saturation is
given by The OCC.
Referring to Figure 3.29,

I at 0 at (3.186)

at (3.187)
K sd
at I

For the nonlinear segment of OCC, I can be
expressed by a suitable mathematical function:

I A sat eBsat at TI (3.189)

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 Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC)

Under no load rated speed conditions

id iq q e d 0

E t e q d L adifd
Hence, OCC relating to terminal voltage and field
current gives saturation characteristic of the d-axis

Figure 3.29: Open-circuit characteristic showing effects of

saturation

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 For salient pole machines, since q-axis flux is
largely in air, Laq does not vary significantly with
saturation
Ksq=1 for all loading conditions
For round rotor machines, there is saturation in
both axes
q-axis saturation characteristic not usually
available
the general industry practice is to assume
Ksq = Ksd
For a more accurate representation, it may be
desirable to better account for q-axis saturation of
round rotor machines
q-axis saturates appreciably more than the d-
axis, due to the presence of rotor teeth in the
magnetic path
Figure 3.32 shows the errors introduced by
assuming q-axis saturation to be same as that of d-
axis, based on actual measurements on a 500 MW
unit at Lambton GS in Ontario
Figure shows differences between measured
and computed values of rotor angle and field
current
the error in rotor angle is as high as 10%, being
higher in the underexcited region
the error in the field current is as high as 4%,
being greater in the overexcited region

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 The q-axis saturation characteristic is not readily
available
It can, however, be fairly easily determined from
steady-state measurements of field current and
rotor angle at different values of terminal voltage,
active and reactive power output
Such measurements also provide d-axis
saturation characteristics under load
Figure 3.33 shows the d- and q-axis saturation
characteristics derived from steady-state
measurements on the 500 MW Lambton unit

Figure 3.33: Lambton saturation curves derived from

steady-state field current and rotor angle measurements

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 Example 3.3
Considers the 555 MVA unit at Lambton GS and
examines
the effect of representing q-axis saturation
characteristic distinct from that of d-axis
the effect of reactive power output on rotor angle

Table E3.1 shows results with q-axis saturation assumed

same as d-axis saturation
Table E3.1
Pt Qt Ea (pu) Ksd i (deg) ifd (pu)
0 0 1.0 0.889 0 0.678
0.4 0.2 1.033 0.868 25.3 1.016
0.9 0.436 1.076 0.835 39.1 1.565
0.9 0 1.012 0.882 54.6 1.206
0.9 -0.2 0.982 0.899 64.6 1.089

Table E3.2 shows results with distinct d- and q-axis

saturation representation
Table E3.2
Pt Qt Ksq Ksd i (deg) ifd (pu)
0 0 0.667 0.889 0 0.678
0.4 0.2 0.648 0.868 21.0 1.013
0.9 0.436 0.623 0.835 34.6 1.559
0.9 0 0.660 0.882 47.5 1.194
0.9 -0.2 0.676 0.899 55.9 1.074

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 Simplified Models for Synchronous
Machines

Neglect of Amortisseurs
first order of simplification
data often not readily available

Classical Model (transient performance)

constant field flux linkage
neglect transient saliency (x'd = x'q)
Et
xd
E

Steady-state Model
constant field current
neglect saliency (xd = xq = xs)

Et
xs Eq = Xadifd
Eq

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Reactive Capability Limits of Synchronous
Machines

In voltage stability and long-term stability studies, it

is important to consider the reactive capability
limits of synchronous machines
Synchronous generators are rated in terms of
maximum MVA output at a specified voltage and
power factor which can be carried continuously
without overheating
The active power output is limited by the prime
mover capability
The continuous reactive power output capability is
limited by three considerations
armature current limit
field current limit
end region heating limit

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 Armature Current Limit

Armature current results in power loss, and the

resulting heat imposes a limit on the output

The per unit complex output power is

~ *
S P jQ E t ~I t E t It cos j sin

where is the power factor angle

In a P-Q plane the armature current limit, as shown in

Fig. 5.12, appears as a circle with centre at the origin
and radius equal to the MVA rating

Fig 5.12: Armature current heating limit

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 Field Current Limit

Because of the heating resulting from RfdI2fd power

loss, the field current imposes the second limit
The phasor diagram relating Et, It and Eq (with Ra
neglected) is shown in Fig. 5.13

Equating the components along and perpendicular to

the phasor Et
X adifd sin i X slt cos

X adifd cos i E t X slt sin

Therefore
X ad
P E tlt cos E tifd sin i
Xs
X E2
Q E tlt sin ad E tifd cos i t
Xs Xs

The relationship between P and Q for a given field

current is a circle centered at on the Q-axis and with
as the radius. The effect of the maximum field current
on the capability of the machine is shown in Fig. 5.14
In any balanced design, the thermal limits for the field
and armature intersect at a point (A) which represents
the machine name-plate MVA and power factor rating

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 Field Current Limit

Fig. 5.13: Steady state phasor diagram

Fig. 5.14: Field current heating limit

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 End Region Heating Limit

The localized heating in the end region of the armature

affects the capability of the machine in the underexcited
condition
The end-turn leakage flux, as shown in Fig. 5.15, enters
and leaves in a direction perpendicular (axial) to the
stator lamination. This causes eddy currents in the
laminations resulting in localized heating in the end
region
The high field currents corresponding to the overexcited
condition keep the retaining ring saturated, so that end
leakage flux is small. However, in the underexcited
region the field current is low and the retaining ring is
not saturated; this permits an increase in armature end
leakage flux
Also, in the underexcited condition, the flux produced
by the armature current adds to the flux produced by the
field current. Therefore, the end-turn flux enhances the
axial flux in the end region and the resulting heating
effect may severely limit the generator output,
particularly in the case of a round rotor machine
Fig. 5.16 shows the locus of end region heating limit on
a P-Q plane

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 End Region Heating Limit

Fig. 5.15: Sectional view end region of a generator

Fig. 5.16: End region heating limit

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 Reactive Capability Limit of a 400 MVA
Hydrogen Cooled Steam Turbine Generator

Fig. 5.18 shows the reactive capability curves of a 400

MVA hydrogen cooled steam turbine driven generator at
rated armature voltage
the effectiveness of cooling and hence the allowable
machine loading depends on hydrogen pressure
for each pressure, the segment AB represents the
field heating limit, the segment BC armature heating
limit, and the segment CD the end region heating limit

Fig. 5.18: Reactive capability curves of a hydrogen cooled

generator at rated voltage
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Effect of Changes in Terminal Voltage Et

Fig. 5.17: Effect of reducing the armature voltage on the

generator capability curve

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