STRUCTURE of BLOOD

VESSELS
 Three kinds of tissues found in the cross sections of an Artery and
a Vein;
1.a single innermost layer of epithelial cells
2.a middle layer of smooth muscles arranged in a circular manner around
the vessel.Big arteries also have elastic fibers among smooth muscles.
3.an outermost layer of tough connective with some elastic fibers and
nerve cells.
The middle layer is thicker in the artery than in vein.
.The space inside a vein is wider than that inside an artery of the same
diameter.
Many veins ,especially those found near the surface of the body,have
halves
 HEART BEAT-refers to the rhythmic contraction of the heart muscles.
Following sequence of events:
a.The right atrium contracts,followed closely by the left atrium.Blood
passes on to the ventricles.this is followed by relaxation of the
atria,allowing blood to enter the heart and closing the valves between
each atrium and its ventricle.
b.Next,both right and left ventricles contract.Blood passes on the arteries
.This is followed by relaxation of the ventricles
c.A short pause,or period of inactivity,follows .And then the cycle is
repeated.
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 How do antibodies differ from
antigens?
Antibodies are substances that act against foreign materials that enter
our body.They belong to a group of blood proteins called .The
materials that cause the body to produce antibodies are called
antigens.They are usuallynproteins or carbohydrates in nature.
What is Bloodletting?
Bloodletting is the process of drawing small quantities of blood from a
person.During the early times , people believe that all illness stems from
the over abundance of blood.So when a person a sick,doctors back then
would open his/her vein with a sharpened piece of wood to let the excess
blood flow out into a waiting receptacle.But now blood is being drawn from
a person to help cure another person.Donated blood can be used in
transfusions,It can also be kept for future use.
What are Congenital Heart
Diseases?
Congenital heart diseases refer to deformities of the heart that
are present at birth..These can involve the interior walls of the
heart ,valves inside the heart and major blood vessels that
carry the blood to the heart.
Contributing causes of congenital heart diseases;
a.genetic
b.environmental;(smoking,alcohol consumption,poor
blood sugar level,and certain medicines used during pregnancy)
; c.other conditions;(illness of the pregnant mother like
rubella or German measles.
 Congenital heart diseases range from simple defects
with no symptoms from simple defects with no
symptoms at all to complex
BLOOD DISEASES
1.Anemia-occurs when the blood does not have enough red blood cells,or is deficient in
hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin-the oxygen-carrying pigment in Red Blood Cells.
The most common type of anemia is the inability to form hemoglobin due to deficiency
in iron,vitamin B12 and folic acid
Prevention;Healthy diet must include foods rich in these vitamins and minerals like
liver,meat,seafoods,eggs,milk,dairy products,fruits and green leafy vegetables.
2.Leukemia-referred to the cancer of the blood.It is a condition characterized by
excessive production of abnormal white blood cells.It starts in the bone marrow,then
spreads out to other body parts..
Symptons;
1easy bruising
2.bleeding
3.Swollen gums
4.Enlargement of lymoh nodes,liver or spleen.
Treatments;
1,chemotherapy
2.Radiation therapy
3.Bone marrow transplant
4,surgery
CARE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Ways of taking proper care of our circulatory system;
1. Eating a healthy diet..
Effect of certain diet on the circulatory system.
1.Fruits and vegetables in the diet help reduce the risk of
heart disease.Garlic,onion and red chillies act as anti
coagulants and lower blood pressure and cholesterol
level.
2.Unhealthy diet high in fats and cholesterol impairs
blood circulation and increases the risk of heart attack or
stroke.
 Low Density Lipoprotein(LDL) can cause blockage in
arteries.
4.A low fat diet with plenty of fiber such as whole-grain
rice,bread ,pasta has been known to reduce blood
pressure.
5.Dietary approach to stop hypertension(DASH) eating
plan includes lots of fruits and vegetables,low dietary
products,reduced salt but rich in potassium and calcium
content.
 B.Doing regular exercises..when we exercise,our heart beats
faster to allow more blood supply into our muscles.This means
additional nourishment and oxygen supply that provide more
energy to our body cells,.
C.Avoiding risk factors
1.smoking
2.alcohol consumption
3.poor nutrition
4.tension or stress
5.physical inactivity
 D.Maintining a healthy weight-Obesity or excessive
weight leads to increase chances of circulatory
problems like hypertension,high cholesterol level and
diabetes.
E.Getting regular health screenings._regular health
screenings provide an index for the appropriate action
to take in maintaining a healthy circulatory system.
STRUCTURE and FUNCTION;
Respiratory is responsible for getting oxygen from the
atmosphere and bringing it to our lungs.
Respiration-is the process by which oxygen enters the
body and reaches the cells.Oxygen is used in the
chemical reactions with in the cells.
How is the human respiratory system adapted to carry
out its functions?Following are some of the adaptations;
1.Nasal cavities-are lined with a mucous membrane and
hair.They serve as filters to screen out dust particles in
the air.
 2.The esophagus and the air tube are joined at the
pharynx.The hole between the two tubes is called
glottis,an opening into the larynx
3.The larynx is also known as voice box because of the
vocal chords that are stretched across it.
-It is also referred to as Adams applebecause it
protrudes in a mans neck.
4,The glottis is always open except when we
swallow.above the glottis is a flaplike structure called
epiglottis.It closes the glottis when we swallow.
 5.The trachea or windpipe,is kept open by incomplete
rings of cartilage.The incomplete rings allow us to widen
the trachea when we want to inhale more air.
Considering that the air sacs of the lungs are very small
and their walls are very thin,they remain open this is
because the inner walls of the air sacs are lined by a
film made of fat and protein molecules.This film keeps
the air sacs from collapsing.
6.The lungs are covered by a delicate membrane,called
pleura,which extends from around the lungs to the walls
of the chest cavity,thus forming two layers around the
lungs.
 A small amount of lymph between two layers keeps
them moist and prevents rubbing .Sometimes,too much
lymph gathers between the two layers.This exerts
pressure against the pleura which becomes
inflamed,The condition is known as pleurisy.
The lungs are housed in the rib cage.
The ribs protect the lungs from external injury
Examples of adaptations of the human respiratory
system
a.Mucous membrane
B.Hair
 Respiration is achieved through the
mouth,nose,trachea,lungs,and diaphragm.Oxygen enters
the respiratory through the mouth and the nose.The
oxygen then passes through the larynx and the
trachea,which is a a tube that enters the chest cavity.In
the chest cavity,the trachea splits into 2 smaller tubes
called the bronchi.Each bronchus then divides again
tubes forming bronchial tubes.The bronchial tubes lead
directly into the lungs when they divide into smaller
tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli .The
average adult lungs conatin about 600 million of these
the waste rich blood from the veins its carbon dioxide
into the alveoli.The carbon dioxide follows the same path
out of tbe lungs when you exhale.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscles that lies across
the bottom of the chest cavity.As breathing takes place
,the diaphragm contracts and relaxes.Contraction of
diaphragm enables oxygen to be pulled into the
lungs.When the diaphragm relaxes,carbon dioxide is
pumped out of the lungs.
BREATHING MECHANISM
When the rib muscles and diaphragm muscles
contract,the chest cavity becomes larger.As a result,the
air pressure inside the chest cavity becomes larger .As a
result , the air pressure inside the chest cavity becomes
less than that outside the body.Air outside rushes into the
lungs.This is inhaling.
When the rib muscles and diaphragm muscles
relax,the chest cavity becomes smaller.As a result ,the air
pressure inside the chest cavity becomes greater than
that outside the body.Air rushes out of the lungs,This is
exhaling.
HOW DO WE TAKE CARE OF OUR
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory diseases are ailments that affect the different parts of
our air passages,particularly our nose,throat and lungs.
Diseases of the Respiratory system;
1.Common Cold- is a viral infection that causes inflammation of the
membranes of our air passages.It is a contagious ailment that is
usually spread through coughing and touching contaminated objects.
Symptons;
a.Sneezing
b.Sore throat
c.Stuffy or runny nose
d.Headaches
e.Fever
g.Muscle pains
Prevention and Treatment
a.Have enough rest
b.Eat nutritious foods that include immune boosting vitamin C rich fruits.
c.Drink plenty of fluids such as water ,warm soups,hot tea,milk and fruit
juices.
d.Have medical treatment with decongestants,cough suppressants and
pain relieversas needed
2.Cough-a natural reflex that is quite annoying but vital for the
protection of air passages.It keeps mucus and foreign bodies,such as
environmental irritants,from reaching and harming the lungs
Symptoms;
a.Sore throat
b.Stuffy nose
Home Remedies for sore throat relief.;
a.Eating soft and not cold foods
b.Drinking plenty of fluidsc
c.Gargling with mild salt solution
 Ways on how to help clear nasal passages in case of stuffy nose;
a.hot shower
b.heat pack,
c.application of a menthol or eucalyptus-based salve below the nose
d.blowing nose properly.
3.Influenza-is a serious respiratory disorder that is caused by the
influenza virus.
Common Symptons;
a.Runny nose
b.Sore throat
c. Cough
d.Nausea
e.Body aches
f.Diarrhea
g.Fever
h.Chills
i.Sweat
j.Upper respiratory congestion
TREATMENT;
4.Sinusitis- a

a.Bed rest
b.Lots of liquid intake
c.Nutritious diet
d.Proper sanitation
are cavities in the nasal bones,inflammation of which is
called sinusitis.Such condition triggers mucus production resulting in runny
nose.
Causes;
a.Common cold
b.Bacterial or fungal infection
c.Allergic reactions
Symptons;
a.Headache
b.Nasal congestion.
C,sore throat
d.Coughing with difficulty in breathing
e.Production of yellowish mucus
Basic Curative Measures;
a.Increase liquid intake
b.Avoid cigarettes
c.Avoid air pollution
Medical treatments;
a,antibiotics
b.Nasal sprays
5,Asthma-this is characterized by difficulty in breathing
to airflow where the sensitive airway constricts.
reduced

Causes;a
a,air pollutants
b.Cold air
c.Excessive exercises
Prevention and Treatment;
a.Keep the house clean and dust free
b.Avoid air pollutants and remove allergens
c.Use only allergen-proof pillows and blankets
e. Have regular medical check ups
f.Do cardiovascular exercises
g.Use broncho dilators and anti inflammatory medications,according to
doctors prescription
6.BRONCHITIS-respiratory ailment involves inflammation of the bronchial
tubes due to viral or bacterial infection..
Symptoms;
a.Sore throat
b.Nasal congestion
C.Cough
d.Chest pain
e.Yellow or green mucus or sputum
f.Fatigue
Medical Treatment;
a.Use of antibiotics
b.Bronchodilators
c.Decongestants
d.Increase fluid intake
6.LUNG INFECTION-
Examples;
a.Pneumonia-caused by either bacteria or virus.mild or severe
 Main Symptoms;
a.Cough
b.Shortness of breathing
c.Chest pain
d.Yellow or green bloody mucus secretions
e.Fever
f.Fatigue
Basic Treatment;
a.Bed rest
b.Increase fluid intake
c.Nutritious diet
Medications;
a.Antibiotics
b.Expectorants
c.Respiratory therapy
2.TUBERCULOSIS-an infectious disease of the lungs usually caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.It is mainly acquired ny inhalinginfectious droplets whwn an actively
infected persons coughs or sneezes
INDICATORS;
a. Prolonged cough with blood tinged sputum
b. B.chest pains
c. C.fever
d. Night sweats
5.Weight loss
Diagnosis of tuberculosis commonly includes;
a.Chest x ray
b.Tuberculin skin test
c.Microscopic examination
d.Microbial culture of body fluids
Prevention and Control;
a.Vaccination of infants
b.Treatment with appropriate antibiotics of active cases
Recommendation for speedy recovery;
a.Complete rest
b.Fresh air
c.Proper diet particularly rich in Vit.B complex
C. LUNG CANCER-it is caused by uncontrolled and rapid growth of cells
that impair healthy cells in tissues.
Symptoms:
a.Chronic or prolonged cough
b.Blood in the mucus
c.Chest pains
d.Weight loss
e.Shortness of breath
f.Fatigue
g.Hoarseness of voice
h.Swllowing difficulties
i. Loss of appetite
Causes
a.Viral infection
b.Environmental factors(carcinogens and radiation)
Carcinogens-are cancer causing agents that are found in the environment,even
indoors at home and at work.
Examples:
a.Cigarette
b.Asbestos dust
c.Arsenic
d.Some forms of silica and chromium
 e.exposure to tobacco smoke
f.Radon gas
g.Air pollution
Treatment:
a.Surgery
b.chemotherapy,
c.Radiation therapy
D,drug therapy
CARE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
a.Clean,fresh air
b.Maintain clean,dust free surroundings
c.Quit smoking or never smoke at all
d.Stay away from people who are infected with
cold,bronchitis and tuberculosis
e.Do regular exercises
f.Have enough rest,eat ahealthy diet and get extra
medication.Multivitamins can help strengthen your
immune system.
g.Seek immediate medical treatment at the first sign of a
respiratoryinfection.
STRUCTURE and FUNCTION;EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
Excretion-is the process of getting rid of metabolic wastes from the body.
These includes;
a.Excess water d.nitrogenous wastes such as urea,uric acid and
ammonia
B.Excess salts
c.Carbon dioxide
d. Nitrogen containing compounds(or nitrogenous compounds) which result
from metabolism of proteins of proteins such as ammonia,urea and uric
acid.
The Human Excretory System;;
Kidney- the main excretory system
The excretory unit of the kidney is the nephron..There are
about a million nephrons in each kidney,Each nephron is made
up of a network of capillaries called glomeruli and a very long
tube..The beginning of the excretory tubule is a cup-shaped
structure,the Bowmans capsule,inside in which a glomerulus
is found.

The renal artery brings blood to the kidney..The blood in the

renal artery contains many impurities.In the kidney,the renal
artery subdivides into numerous smaller arteries called
arterioles which lead to glomeruli.As blood passes through
the glomeruli,urine,water,glucose,and salts are filtered into
the Bowmans capsule>it is estimated that around 40 gallons of
fluid a day are filtered in the Bowmans capsules.The body
cannot afford to lose this tremendous amount of fluid.
How does the body prevent actual loss of this water?

While the fluid passes through the long folded

tubules,most of the water ,salts,blood sugar,blood
proteins and other substances needed by the body are
reabsorbed back yo the blood.The liquid which remains in
the tubules is now called urine
 Other Excretory Organs

1.Sweat Glands of the skin-the protective human skin has

sweat glands which,like the kidneys,get rid of excess
water and salts,.However,excessive sweating during
rigorous exercise or heavy work is more a problem of
dehydration or loss of water than a problem of loss of
salt.
2.Lungs-ejects excess carbon dioxide and a small
amount of water into the air sacs of the lungs.
anus, together with the feces.
3.Liver-the liver cells change amino acids into urea.it also breaks down old red blood cells.Most
of the iron salts from the blood cells are brought back to the bone marrow by the blood.The rest
of the broken blood cells become part of bile which is poured into the small intestine .Bile helps
in digesting fats.After this,it is thrown out of the body with feces.

4.Large intestine-excretes excess salts such as those of iron,calcium and magnesium.This is

done by cells lining the walls of the large intestine.These salts mix with the undigested food and
are expelled out of the body through the anus, together with the feces.

3.Liver-the liver cells change amino acids into urea.it also breaks down old red blood cells.Most
of the iron salts from the blood cells are brought back to the bone marrow by the blood.The rest
of the broken blood cells become part of bile which is poured into the small intestine .Bile helps
in digesting fats.After this,it is thrown out of the body with feces.

4.Large intestine-excretes excess salts such as those of iron,calcium and magnesium.This is

done by cells lining the walls of the large intestine.These salts mix with the undigested food and
are expelled out of the body through the anus, together with the feces.
HOW DO WE TAKE CARE OF OUR
EXCRETORY SYSTEM?
Some Diseases of the Excretory System
1.Nephritis-involves inflammation of the glomeruli,the tiny filters of the kidney.It is also
known as glomerulonephritis.The condition permits protein and red blood cells that
usually circulate with the blood stream to pass into the urine.
CAUSES;
1.-the cause of the disease is unknown;however ,the dysfunction of the immune
system has been identified as an underlying cause.
2.Drugs
3.Certain infections such as strep throat,and hepatitis B.
As Nephritis progresses,the following symptoms of the disease can be observed like.;
1.Hypertension
2.Excessive foamimg of the urine
3.Changed color o urine to red or dark brown
4.Puffiness of eyes,hand and feet
5.Nausea
6.Vomiting
In mild cases of nephritis the patients may recover on their
own.Advanced cases may be slowed down by lowering blood pressure
with medication and having low protein and low salt diet.
In more advanced cases,temporary dialysis treatment maybe
recommended to clean the blood until the kidneys recover or respond to
treatment .
In severe cases,regular dialysis treatment or a kidney transplant maybe
required as recommended by a nephrologist.
2.Kidney stones-most kidney stones are composed with;
a.Calcium phosphate
b.Oxalic acid compounds
c./magnesium
d.Ammonium phosphate
e. Uric acid
Starting as small particles, kidney stones are formed as these particles cling together and
increase in size up to about an inch in diameter.Small stones are usually excreted from
the body;the large ones are likely to stay with in the kidney with out symptoms of their
presence.Nonetheless ,considerable pains can be felt if the larger stones move to the
bladder.Large stones can completely block the ureters causing backflow of urine into the
kidney.Such a case necessities removal of large stones ,otherwise,the condition can lead
to the destruction of the kidneys.
Common causes of kidney stones;
1.High pro-protein diet
2excess of calcium and vitamins in ones diet
3.Urine blockage
4.High acid content in urine
5.Chronic diarrhea
6.Dehydration
7.Gout
Usual Treatments;
a.Do nothing for small stones that could easily be excreted and for large stones in
asymptomatic older patients.
b.Drink enough fluids during the day and even at night to excrete more water daily.This
measure will lessen the concentration of kidney stones in the urine as well as increase the
rate of urine flow
c.Regulate diet to be low in salt and protein
d.Seek medical treatment that involves dissolving small kidney stones
e.Undergo surgical treatments such as the minimally invasive endoscopic treatment or the
invasive surgical treatment for large stones removal as recommended by the urologist.
3.Uremia-refers to the condition when the body
becomes poisoned by its own metabolic wastes because
of dysfunctional kidneys.This is also known as chronic
renal failure because the kidneys cease ;to function
properly.
Causes
a.Chronic glomerulonephritis b.extr-renal factors(stones in the UT)
c.Heart disease d.Diabetes

Diagnostic tests
a.Blood test b.Urine test c.Renal function test

Preventive Measures
a.Take low protein diet
c.Avoid chemical substances that are toxic to th kidneys such as cadmium .
d.Stop smoking which is harmful to the kidneys and other organs
SYMPTOMS
a.Discomfort of the abdomen and diarrhea
b.Muscle trembling and seizure
c.Hypertension
d.Arrhythmia
e.Uremic bronchitis
f.Pneumonia
Basic treatment-involves a carefully regulated diet that is low in protein and
phosphorous
Uremic patients have to undergone dialysis treatment repeatedly and
become dependent on this therapy. This is for the purpose of getting rid of
excessive accumulation of metabolic wastes which the body produces
continuously.
In severe cases,kidney transplant is necessary to replace dysfunctional
kidneys.
4.Urinary Tract Infection-caused by Gram negative bacteria such as
Escherichia coli(E.coli) that grow and multiply at the opening of the
urethra.The infection can travel to the bladder and,if not treated early
enough,the bacteria may be even spread to the ureters and eventually
infect the kidneys.If left untreated ,UTI could cause serious problems in
the kidneys and other body parts.
 DIAGNOSIS.;
a. urinalysis-examining urine specimen for WBC,blood and bacteria
b.Blood test
c.Ultrasound of the urinary tract
d.X-ray of the kidneys,ureters and bladder.
SYMPTOMS;
a.Strong urge to frequently urinate
b.Painful burning feeling when urinating
c.Cloudy or reddish brown urine with strong foul odor
TREATMENT;
a.Drinfk lots of fluid
b.Antibiotics are administered depending on the severity of the condition
Care of the Excretory System
1.Eat a healthy diet-a low protein and low salt diet with plenty of fruits
and vitamins .Avoid the high-fat processed foods and the popular high
salt junk foods..Aside from the high risk of kidney stone formation
that habitual consumption of these foods entail ,they usually contain
additives and preservatives that are difficult to process putting
additional stress to the excretory system.
2.Drink plenty of water
3.Do regular exercises
4.Avoid toxins;(drugs,alcohol,chemicals in lotion and body care
products,pesticides,air fresheners)
5.Observe other health tips.
HEREDITY and VARIATION
GENETICS- the science that deals with the study of heredity..
CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE AND THE ROLE OF DNA AS A
BLUEPRINT OF LIFE..
Every living organism strats as one cell.The cell is called a zygote(a
cell that is forming when an egg and sperm combine;a fertilized
egg .The zygote has all the factors that determine what the new
organism will look like,such as body structure,color of hair and so
on.These factors are the genes of the body.
GENE- a DNA molecule in the nucleus of a cell that controls the
formation of certain proteins and that controls a certain trait of the
organism.
Chromosome-the threadlike part in the nucleus of a cell that
contains the genes..
The genes themselves are made up of a special chemical material
called DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).DNA is the material that is
responsible for the likeness between parents and their
offspring.When organisms reproduce,the chromosomes carrying
genes made of DNA are passed from one generation to the next.This
is how traits are inherited.
Background Information of chromosomes;
a.Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.They
are chemically made up of molecules of protein and DNA.
b.They are threadlike structures I cells at interphase,the stage in the
cell cycle when cells are at rest from division.
c.Double-stranded chromosomes become tightly coiled into rod-
shaped structures and are distributed equally to daughter cells during
cell division
d.After cell divides by mitosis,the two daughter cells produced contain
single-stranded chromosomes,the number of which is exactly the
same as the chromosome number of the parent cell.
e.When the cell divides by meiosis ,the four daughter daughter cell
produced contain single-stranded chromosomes,the number of which
is reduced to half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
f.Cells need to go through synthesis phase of interphase after division
to allow the duplication of chromosomes and to return single-stranded
chromosomes back to double-stranded state.
g.Mitosis occurs in most body cells(also called somatic cells).Most body
cells are diploid ,represented by 2N,which means they contain two
sets of chromosome.
h.Meiosis occurs during sexual reproductionto produce sex cells or
gametes.Gametes(sperm and egg) are haploid,represented by N,which
means they contain only one set of chromosomes..
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF CHROMOSOME;
1.Act as the storage facility of genetic material.
2.Responsible for the expression of inherited characters
3.Passed on from parent to offspring and thus they transmit
hereditary information from one generation to the next.
4.They subject to change ;thus they are also factors of variation
Cell Division-the process that results in the formation of new cells
Two parts;
1.karyokinesis-division of the nucleus.It produces daughter nuclei.
2.cytokinesis-division of the cytoplasm.It produces daughter cells.
A chromosome in a cell that is at restfrom division is double
stranded
Each strand is called a chromatid.Since the two chromatids in a
chromosome contain identical genes or genetic information,they also
sometimes refer to as sister chromatids.Sister chromatids are joined
together by a centromere.
Each chromatid is made up of;
1.Basic protein called histones
2.Nucleic acid called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
How do the structural and chemical properties of the chromosome
help in the performance of its function?
DNA is the major chemical component of chromosomes.DNA is
replicated during synthesis phase of interphase before a cell divides.
 Types of cells in our body
1.Body cells or somatic cells
2.Sex cell or gametes
Somatic cells-make up most of the body,tissues and organs.The
skin,heart,stomach,and liver are made up of somatic cells.
Gametes are found in the ovaries of female and testes of male.
Each of the body cells contains a set of 46 chromosomes,which come in
pairs and are genetically identical.
Karyotype-refers to the complete set of chromosomes in an individual.
23 pairs-of chromosomes are found in the nucleus of only one
eukaryotic cell in our body.
Chromosome pairs 1 to 22 are considered autosomes,chromosomes that
contain genes for those characteristics not related to the sex of an organism.
The chromosomes ( X and Y ) comprise the 23rd pair which are called the sex
chromosomes,directly associated with the development of sexual
characteristics.
A female individual has two X chromosome, while a male individual has both
X and Y chromosome.
Body cells and sex cells have different number of chromosomes.
The body cells are diploid which means that each cell has two pairs of
chromosomes:one pair is donated by the father and the other pair by the
mother.
The sex cells (sperm cells and egg cells ) are haploid
cells that are produced by meiosis.
Haploid cells ( n ) are cells that contain one complete
set of chromosomes.When the sex cells unite durinf
fertilization ,the haploid cells become diploid cells.
Diploid cells (2n) contain two complete sets of
chromosomes.
Haploid sex cell is produced from the reduction division of
meiosis which reduces the chromosome number of a cell
by half.
Chromosome and DNA
Relation between chromosome and DNA.;
1. Before a cell divides, the chromosomes in its nucleus are double
stranded.Each strand is called a chromatid.
2.A chromatid is made up of tremendously long deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)
molecules around an equal mass of proteins called histones.This DNA wound
around a protein core is called a nucleosome,and is the basic unit of
achromosome.
3.A nucleosome is joined to other nucleosomes in a chain by linker DNA.The
chain of nucleosomes gives the chromosome its beads on a string appearance.
4.Thus,a chromosome is made up of two organic compounds
a. protein called histones
b.nucleic acid called DNA
5.The building units of nucleic acid molecules are called
nucleotides.Nucleic acids are also known as polynucleotides,because
they are composed of many nucleotides linked together in a long
chain.For instance,a single DNA molecule is made up of several hundred
nucleotides.
6.Each nucleotide is chemically made up of three components;
a.a fivep-carbon sugar called deoxyribose
b.a phosphate group
c.a nitrogenous base
7.There are four kinds of nitrogenous bases in DNA identified as
guanine,adenine,thymine,and cytosine
These are classified into two groups based on molecular
structure ;
a.Purine bases; guanine(G) and adenine (A)
b.Pyrimidine bases;cytosine(C ) and thymine(T)
Purine molecules are relatively bigger than pyrimidine
molecules.
8.Based on the kind of nitrogenous base they
contain,there
P
are four kinds of nucleotide.
Representation of one nucleotide
Polynucleotide-is formed if nucleotides link together into a
straight chain
Chromosome is made up of two chromatids and each chromatid is
made up of two complementary polynucleotides.
Nitrogenous bases of two complementary nucleotides pair up by
forming weak hydrogen bonds between them..Only a specific type
of purine can pair up with a particular pyrimidine.
The complementary base pairs are;
1.Adenine with thymine (A-T)
2.Guanine with cytosine (G-C )
The Discovery of DNA
James D.Watson (American geneticist) and Francis C.Crick (British Biophycist)
are credited with the famous model of the DNA molecule;a double helix made
up of complementary polynucleotide strands.they were both working at
Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University,UK. They explained that each
DNA molecule is a double-helix made up of complementary polynucleotide
strands that can unzip to make copies of itself.
Prior to this event,Maurice F.Wilkins and Rosalind Elsie Franklin (both British)
had been doing X-ray diffraction studies of DNA t Kings College in London.Their
results had influenced the way Crick and Watson viewed the DNA molecule.
In 1962,Crick,Watson and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine
for their work on the structure of DNA.Since the prize could not be awarded
posthumously,Franklin was not included as recipient because she had died of
cancer in 1958.
 Classification of cells based on function:
1.vegetative,somatic or body cells
2.Reproductive cells
Vegetative or somatic cells-(from soma,meaning body)form the body of organisms.
Examples;
a.Cells of the epithelium in the stomach of an animal
b.Cells in the leaves of flowering plants.
These vegetative cells are mainly concerned with the maintenance of the life processes of
the whole organism. Such processes may include the procurement of food and removal of
waste products.
Reproductive cells-are involved in the production of offspring .
In sexually reproducing animals,the reproductive cells are called gametes,of which there
are two kinds,sperm and egg.In plants,such as in mosses,ferns, and flowering plants,repro-
Reproductive or sex cells are also known as sperm and egg.
In general, each kind of plant and animal has definite number of
chromosomes found in each body cell.This number of
chromosomes,which is established at the time of the formation of
the zygote or fertilized egg,is often referred to as the
chromosomenumber of the species.
Common Animals and their Diploid Chromosome Number
Common Name Species Diploid
Chromosome

Number=2N
1.Cat Felis catus 38
2.Dog Canis familiaris 78
3.Goat Capra hircus 60
4.Horse Equus caballus 64
WHAT ARE HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES?
In a diploid cell,each kind of chromosome is represented by a pair.Each pair of
chromosome is referred to as homologous chromosomes.
Characteristics of Homologous Chromosomes;
1.Structurally alike
2.They have the same size or length
3.Their centromeres are similarly positioned so that the so called arms of the
homologous chromosomes are of the same lengths..
In males,one pair of chromosomes are not strictly homologous since they are of
different sizes.These are the so called sex chromosomes which may be said to
constitute a pair of heteromorphic chromosomes.The pair of sex chromosomes c
onsists of the larger X chromosome and the smaller Y chromosome.
How do vegetative or somatic cells maintain their chromosome numbers?
Vegetative or somatic cells divide to produce new cells,for growth or to repair and replace damaged
tissues.The process that results in the formation of these new cells involves a type of nuclear division
called mitosis.
Mitosis-is a type of cell division that produces two daughter nuclei,each containing exactly the same
number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
NON MENDELIAN GENETICS
Gregor Johann Mendel was an Australian monk who conducted hybridization experiment in garden
pea plants.
He noted some heredity units which he called factors (and which were called as genes.
Alleles-the alternative version of a gene.
For each biological trait,an organism inherits two alleles,one from the father and another from the
mother.
Law of Inheritance-law established by Gregor Mendel which led towards the understanding of how
traits are passed from one generation to the next and helped explain how variation in traits happen
among organisms.
The results of Mendels experiment are tabulated in the Punnet square.
The data in the punnet square shows how the traits from each parent are
distributed..
Example;
p.25.S
There are some instances where in certain traits do not confirm to the Mendelian
Laws of inheritance.Some genetic characteristics are determined by more than
two alleles,as in the case of multiple alleles.
Multiple alleles-traits are the result of the blending of the two alleles.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE-occurs when one allele for a specific traits is not
completely dominant over the other allele
Josef Kolreuter-a German scientist whon discovered the
occurrence of incomplete dominance.He made
experiments on carnation plants,in which he crossed the
red carnations(r1 r1) withn white carnation(r2 r2).All the
offspring from this cross were all pink (r1 r2).
The resulting offspring is pink since the dominant allele
that produces the red color is not completely expressed
over the recessive allele that produces the white color.
Dominant trait-is a trait that will always be expressed
in the phenotype.Alleles for dominant traits are
represented capital letters.
 if two recessive alleles are present.In the presence of a dominant
trait,the recessive trait will not be expressed.
Phenotype-physical expression genes.It refers to the external
appearance of an individual.
Genotype-is the set of genes carried by the organism.It refers to the
internal or genetic composition of the individual
Example:
Bookman p.245
In the example above both RR and Rr are round seeded plants while rr
ha wrinkled seeds. The phenotypic ratio of the offspring with the
dominant trait to the offspring with the recessive trait is 3:1
The RR plant is said to be homozygous for round seed.
Homozygous-refers to a zygote formed by the union of two gametes
with similar genes for a trait.
The Rr plant is said to be heterozygous for round seed.
The genotype makes a distinction between two individuals with the
same outside appearance but different internal composition of genes.
The genotypic ratio of the offspring with three different possible gene
combinations is 1:2:1..The greater the number of offsprings,the greater
is the probability of getting the exact genotypic and phenotypic ratios in
actual crosses.
A heterozygous individual is also called a hybrid.
 In crossing over only one trait,it is called monohybrid cross.
CODOMINANCE
Codominance happens when both alleles are equally strong and,as an
effect,both alleles are visible in the hybrid .Since neither allele is
recessive,the phenotypes of both alleles are expressed in the heterozygote.
This type of inheritance is expressed in some animals like chicken.When you
cross black chicken(b1b1) with white chicken(b2b2),the result is a chicken
characterized by both white and black feathers ,i.e erminette (b1b2).
Erminette chickens have feathers that are both white and black,but not
gray.
Dihybrid Inheritance-crosses involving two traits at a
time
Example;
A pure bred garden pea with round and yellow seeds
were crossed with peas having wrinkled and green seeds-
RRYY and rryy,respectively
Illustration;Bookman p.250-251
Multiple Alleles
Geneticists discovered that there are more than two
phenotypes expressed depending on the dominant or
recessive alleles and the dominance pattern which the
individual alleles follow when they are combined
together.This is a case of multiple alleles.If three or more
alleles are found in the populations,these genes have
multiple alleles.In addition,an organism can only have at
most of the alleles as its characteristic.
Example;
There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this
characteristics;
IA- blood type A,causes antigen A formation

IB-blood type B,causes antigen B formation

i-blood type O-does not cause either A or B formation
I and I stand for the antibody in the blood serum called immunoglobulins.
(IA=IB)>I
In the given expression,the alleles IA and IB are dominant over i.It follows
that type O blood expressed as a homozygous recessive ii.Type A is also
dominant over O and likewise,type B is dominant over O
Blood Types and the Genes Controlling them

Blood Type Gene Representa

Combinatio tion
n
A AA, AO |A|A, |A i
B BB, BO |B|B, i B i
AB AB |A|B
O OO ii
ABO Blood Types
Genotype Phenotype
|A|A or |A i Type A
|B|B or |Bi Type B
|A|B Type AB
ii Type O
The genotype with homozygous dominant IAIA or heterozygous dominant IAi has
type A blood,and homozygous dominant IB IB or heterozygous dominant IB I has
type B blood.Since A and B alleles are co dominant,IA IB has type AB blood.
SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
Sex linked traits are characteristics determined by genes located on the sex
chromosomes.
Genes that are found on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked genes.They
can be found on the X chromosome or on the Y chromosome.
If a gene is situated on the X chromosome,it is an X-linked gene,which can be
inherited by both males and females.If the gene is found on the Y chromosome,it is
Y-linked gene,which can be inherited only by males since only males have the Y
chromosome.
A genetic condition is X-linked when the gene mutation that causes it is located on
the X chromosome,and Y linked when the gene mutation is located on the Y
chromosome.
Since genes for a trait may have two forms or alleles, one allele is usually dominant
 and other is recessive.
In the case of an X-linked dominant trait,the trait is expressed in both
males and females,since both sexes have an X chromosome which may
contain an abnormal gene.For an individual to be susceptible to an X-
linked dominant disease only one copy of a disease allele on the X-
chromosome is required.Presence of a disease allele on the X
chromosome is indicative of disease.Therefore,there is no carrier
among females,because one diseased X chromosome will mask the
recessive or non deceased X chromosome.X-linked dominant dis orders
are therefore lethal in males because they only have one X
chromosome. An example of an X-linked dominant disease is Fragile X
syndrome,orFXS
Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition that causes a range of
development problems.In fact,it is the most common cause of
intellectual disability after Downs syndrome.It is caused by a gene
mutation in the X chromosome.(p.31 Conceptual Science and Beyond)s
Since females give off only the X chromosome,this genetic disorder is passed to the male or
female offspring by the mother.
In the case of an X-linked recessive trait,the trait is expressed in males who only have one
X chromosome;whereas in females,the trait maybe masked or cancelled out if the second
X chromosome contains a normal gene for that same trait. As such,for a female to be
susceptible to an X linked recessive disease,two copies of a disease allele on the X
chromosome are required.
Since males give off only the Y chromosome to their sons,affected fathers cannot transmit
the disease to their sons,They will, however,pass it on to their daughters.
On the other hand,if a mother has the defect on one of her two chromosomes and the
father has normal X chromosome,then there is 25% chance she will pass the disorder to her
son(who will become affected),25% chance she will pass it to her daughter ( who will
become an unaffected carrier),25% chance she will have an unaffected son,and 25% chance
she will have an unaffected daughter.
In Genetics, a carrier,which is always a female,is considered normal.
Fig 2.7.. CSB p32
Examples of X-linked recessive diseases;
1.Duchenne muscular dystrophy
2.Hemophilia A
3.color-blindness
Duchenne muscular dystrophy- is a genetic disorder
that involves muscle weakness that quickly gets worse.
Hemophilia-is a genetic disorder that involves slow blood
clotting process,causing the haemophiliac individual to
experience continuous bleeding to severe bleeding.
There are three types of hemophilia :
*Hemophilia A *Hemophilia B *Von Wilebrand disease

Like any X-linked recessive trait, hemophilia occurs most often in males
than in females.
To determine whether an individual is susceptible to hemophilia.

Expression of hemophilia of male Expression of hemophilia of

Female Genotype Phenotype
Genotype Phenotype
XX Normal
XY Normal
X (^h) X Normal but carrier
X (^H) Y hemophiliac X (^h) X (^h) hemophiliac
Color-blindness is an X-linked recessive gene which is
characterized by the inability to distinguish the difference
between certain colors. This condition is due to an absence
of color-sensitive pigment in the cone cells of the retina. The
most common type of this condition is red-green color-
blindness. A person affected by this has trouble seeing red
and green. For them red and green are the same color.
To determine whether an individual susceptible to color-
Expression of color-blindness in male Expression of color-blindness in
blindness.
female
Genotype Phenotype Genotype Phenotype

XX Normal
XY Normal
X (^c) X Normal but
carrier
X (^c) Y Color-blind
X (^c) X (^c) Color-blind
 Cases of Y-linked single gene disorders are extremely rare. This is because only males
have a Y chromosome.
As such, fathers with Y-linked single gene disease pass the disease to all of their sons
only.

An example of Y-linked disorder is non-obstructive spermatogenic failure. It is a

condition that leads to infertility problems in males. The reduced sperm count is caused
by chromosomal disorder rather than obstruction in the Y chromosome.

Another example of a Y-linked disorder is the Hypertrichosis pinnae auris, or excessive

hair on the ear pinna. This condition is characterized by too much hair in the pinna of the
ear. Hypertrichosis pinnae auris is a Y-linked recessive gene.
Genotype Phenotype

XY Normal

XY (^h) With hairy ears

NON MENDELIAN PATTERNS OF HEREDITY

An albino lacks to the pigment that brings color to the skin

and hair. This is the result of a change in the base sequence
of the DNA in the chromosomes

Mutations is a physical manifestation of changes at the

biochemical level.

Mutations may be either somatic or germ mutation.

Somatic mutation occurs in any body cell except the
reproductive cells. It is not passed on to the offspring and
will cease to exist when the parent organism dies.

Germ mutations occurs in reproductive cells and is

 Causes of Mutations
1. High-Energy Radiation- Exposure to different kinds of rays: cosmic rays, radiation
from radioactive elements, x-rays, gamma rays, beta particles, and ultra violet rays,
is one of the most frequent causes of mutations.

2. Chemicals as Mutagens (agents of mutation) - Among these are

formaldehyde, nitrous acid, peroxide, mustard gas, and marijuana plants 61
cannabinoids with its principal components, delta-9-THC. This component has been
traced as radioactive, and it takes 5 to 8 days for just half the THC in a single
marijuana cigarette to clear from the body. THC inhibits the formation of DNA (the
genetic material essential for proper cell functioning and division) in cells, resulting
in cellular death or its gets aborted.

3. induced Mutations- One form of this comes from recombinant DNA experiments.
Here DNA from one kind of organisms is treated with enzymes to isolate specific
sequence of genes. These genes are then added to another kind of organism, and
this added DNA recombines (with the help of some enzymes) with DNA already
present in the recipient organism. Consequently, the organism can be considered a
mutant.
Chromosomal Aberrations
Chromosomal aberrations involve changes in chromosome
number or structure. These may occur in nuclear division or in
accidents from radiation. These irregularities may include whole
sets of chromosomes, entire single chromosomes or just parts of
chromosomes. Cytologists recognize changes in number of
whole chromosomes and structural modifications which produce
changes in phenotypes.

Chromosomal aberrations occur in both plants and animals.

However, our discussion will concentrate only on the
irregularities manifested in human beings.
Changes in Chromosome Number
An individual having more than two complete sets of chromosomes that are triploid or
tetraploid is called a polypoid. Examples:
XXX, XXXX, XXY, XYY, and XXYY.

POLYPLOID ARE COMMON IN PLANTS BUT ARE RARELY OBSERVE IN ANIMALS. COMPLETE
POLYPOID HUMAN BEINGS ARE RARE AND THE FEW KNOWN CASES ARE EITHER STILLBORN OR
SPONTANEOUSLY ABORTED.

AN INDIVIDUAL WITH ONE EXTRA CHROMOSOME OF A SET (2N + 1) IS TRISOMIC. TRISOMY IN

HUMANS INVOLVED THE FOLLOWING ABNORMALITIES

GAMETES 46 24
22 23
24 47
Downs Syndrome
Downs syndrome is usually produced by nondisjunction
of chromosome 21 during oogenesis or during
spermatogenesis. Nondisjunction is a phenomenon
characterized by the failure of the chromosomes to
separate during meiotic division. The individual suffering
from this type of syndrome has 47 chromosomes instead of
the normal 46. the extra chromosomes is not a sex
chromosomes but an autosome or body chromosome.

Almost all cases of Mongolism were found to occur in

children born by women in their forties. The affected
children called mongoloids show mental retardation and
have a shorter life expectancy. Their most prominent
Turner Syndrome
Turner syndrome is also caused by nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes. It results In
a female who lacks the sex chromosomes. Her genotype is XO instead of XX.

GAMETES
XX XY
X XX O Y
xxx YO
 X XY XX
X XY O X X
XXY XO
Girls of this kind appear normal at birth, but throughout their lives, they are shorter
and stockier than other girls. Women with Turner syndromes have large necks. Their sex
organs and breast do not develop to the adult stage, so they are sterile.

An XO individual is a female with a condition called Turner syndrome. An XO human

female may have partially developed ovaries or none at all, hence they are sterile

An XXY individual is a male with a condition called Klinefelters syndrome. This

person has underdeveloped testes and enlarged breasts. His limbs are long with little
body hair. As in Turner syndrome, an XXY male is mentally defective.
 A triple X individual is a female. Some triple X females are infertile
and show various degrees of mental retardation. Others are fertile
and mentally normal. Observations show that fertile triple X women
may give rise to normal male and female children.

A YO offspring is believed not to be viable so that no cases of

YO individuals has been reported.

Have you heard of criminal chromosomes? In 1961, a human male

was discovered to have XYY sex chromosomes. This phenomenon
was believed to be the result of nondisjunction of the Y-
chromosomes during gamete formation. This phenomenon is called
Criminal syndrome or Jacobs syndrome. Why is this condition
referred to as criminal syndrome? In 1965, Dr. Patricia Jacobs and
her associates made a case study of inmates who had violent
criminal records. The study showed that about 3.5% of the inmates