DATE 27/12/2016 G.

PREPARED BY
AYALEW.A
Temperature contd
THERMOCOUPLES
When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined
at both ends and one junction is made hot and the other cold, a
small electric current is produced proportional to the difference
in the temperature.
The current flowing is the result of the difference in
electromotive force developed
at the two junctions due to their temperature difference. In
practice, the voltage
difference between the two junctions is measured; the
difference in the voltage is
proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions.
Contd
Three effects are associated with thermocouples. They are as
follows:
1. See beck effect. It states that the voltage produced in a
thermocouple is proportional to the temperature
between the two junctions.
2. Peltier effect. It states that if a current flows through a
thermocouple one junction is heated (puts out energy)
and the other junction is cooled (absorbs energy).
3. Thompson effect. It states that when a current flows in a
conductor along which there is a temperature difference,
heat is produced or absorbed, dependingupon the
direction of the current and the variation of temperature.
Contd
Contd
Contd
Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot
end and rejected at the cold end. Thompson
showed that part of the e.m.f. is due to the
temperature gradient in the wire as well as the
temperature difference between the junctions.
Most thermocouple metals produce a
relationship between the two temperatures and
the e.m.f as follows.
Contd
Contd
a and b are constants for the type of thermocouple.
The relationship is nearly linear over the
operating range. The actual characteristic and
suitable operating temperatures depends upon
the metals used in the wires. The various types
are designated in international and national
standards. Typical linear operating ranges are
shown for standard types.
It is important that thermocouples are standard
so that the same e.m.f will always represent the
same temperature.
Contd

Thermocouples come in several forms. They

may be wires insulated from each other with
plastic or glass fiber materials. For high
temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside
a tube with mineral insulation. For industrial
uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure
such as stainless steel.
Contd
Contd
 Chapter-6
FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Basic Flow
measurement
Why do we need flow sensing?

Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount

of material purchased and sold and in these
applications, very accurate flow measurement is
required.
To know how much a particular material are passes
To control process variables i.e.
Temperature in heat exchanger
Composition in reactor
Level in storage tank
Pressure in hot gas accumulators
To control all the above variables we open or close inlet
and out let valves
 contd .
Basics of flow sensing
The measurement of fluid flow is very
important in industrial applications.
Optimum performance of some equipment
and operations require specific flow rates.
The cost of many liquids and gases are
based on the measured flow through a
pipeline making it necessary to accurately
measure and control the rate of flow for
accounting purposes.
Basic terms

Velocity is a measure of speed and direction of

an object.
The speed of particles in a fluid flow varies
across the flow, i.e., where the fluid is in
contact with the constraining walls the
velocity of the liquid particles is virtually zero;
in the center of the flow the liquid particles
will have the maximum velocity
Patterns of f u
l id f o
lw
Reynolds num ber

The Reynolds number R is a derived

relationship combining the density and
viscosity of a liquid with its velocity of flow
and the cross-sectional dimensions of the flow.
Laminar flow of a liquid occurs when its
average velocity is comparatively low and the
fluid particles tend to move smoothly in
layers.
contd ..

Turbulent flow occurs when the flow velocity

is high and the particles no longer flow
smoothly in layers and turbulence or a rolling
effect occurs. Flow patterns may be laminar,
turbulent or a combination of both.
 contd
Viscosity is a property of a gas or liquid that is a measure of
its resistance to motion or flow. A viscous liquid such as syrup
has a much higher viscosity than water and water has a higher
viscosity than air. Syrup, because of its high viscosity, flows
very slowly and it is very hard to move an object through it.
The Bernoulli equation is an equation for flow based on the
law of conservation of energy, which states that the total
energy of a fluid or gas at any one point in a flow is equal to
the total energy at all other points in the flow.
Continuity equation

The continuity equation states that if the

overall flow rate in a system is not changing
with the flow rate in any part of the system is
constant.
Q = VA=V1A1 = V2A2=constant
Bernoulli equation
Contd .

Flow measurements can be divided into

the following groups:
flow rate,
total flow, and mass flow

The choice of the flow measuring device will depend on

the required accuracy and fluid characteristics (gas,
liquid, suspended particulates, temperature, viscosity
Types of flow meter
Obstructive flow meter: It includes,
1. Differential pressure flow meters
Orifice meters
Venture meters
2. Variable area flow meter
Rota meter
3. Turbine flow meter
Non obstructive flow meters: It includes,
Electromagnetic flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters
Cross correlation flow meter
Contd .

1. Dp flow meters (Flow rate)

Differential pressure measurements can be made
for flow rate determination when a fluid flows
through a restriction. The restriction produces
an increase in pressure which can be directly
related to flow rate. Commonly used
restrictions;
(a) Orifice plate (b) Venture tube,
(c) Flow nozzle (d) Dall tube.
Contd

Differential pressure flow meter are mainly used

Are widely used for liquid and gas.
A restriction is placed in the pipe and the
differential pressure developed across the restriction
is measured.
When the flow area reduced it will create a pressure
and calibrated according to a flow.
The deferential pressure output is calibrated in
terms of volume flow rate based on Bernoulli's
principle
a) Orifice Plate
Contd

An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening

smaller than the pipe diameter which is inserted in the
pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp
edged opening. As fluid flows through the pipe it has a
certain velocity (which we want to measure) and a
certain pressure (which is quite easily measured).
When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, with the hole
in the middle, the fluid is forced to converge to go
through the small hole; the point of maximum
convergence is actually just after the physical orifice,
at the so-called "venacontracta" point.
Contd
Contd
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Advantages and Disadvantages of orifice
plates
Advantages of orifice plates include:
High differential pressure generated
Exhaustive data available
Low purchase price and installation
cost
Easy replacement
Disadvantages of orifice plate include:

High permanent pressure loss implies higher

pumping cost.
Cannot be used on dirty fluids, slurries or wet
steam as erosion will alter the differential
pressure generated by the orifice plate.
Venture meter

When a venture meter is placed in a pipe

carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be
measured, a pressure drop occurs between the
entrance and throat of the venture meter.
This pressure drop is measured using a
differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure drop becomes a
measure of flow rate.

Contd..
Operation:
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section
of the venture meter with a pressure P1.
As the fluid from the entry section of venture meter flows into the
converging section, its pressure keeps on reducing and attains a
minimum value P2 when it enters the throat. That is, in the throat, the
fluid pressure P2 will be minimum.
The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat
section of the venture meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2)
which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the
pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain
its pressure and hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the
diverging section, greater is the recovery.

 Advantage and disadvantage of Venture Tubes

Advantage

For applications where high permanent pressure

loss is not tolerable, a venture tube can be used.
Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet
cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs.
Its design also minimizes wear and plugging by
allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids
through without obstruction.
Contd

Disadvantages:
Calculated calibration figures are less accurate
than for orifice plates.
The differential pressure generated by a
venture tube is lower than for an orifice plate
and, therefore, a high sensitivity flow
transmitter is needed.
It is more bulky and more expensive.
Difference b/n orifice plate and venture tubes

The orifice is the simplest, cheapest, easiest

to replace, least accurate, more subject to
damage and erosion, and has the highest
loss.
The Venture tube is more difficult to
replace, most expensive, most accurate, has
high tolerance to damage and erosion, and
the lowest permanent pressure losses of all
the three tubes.
 2. Variable area meter (Rota meter)
Widely used for flow indication
Consists of float with in a vertical transparent tube
tapered (going to become thin) to an increasing cross
sectional area at the out let.
The fluid entering through the bottom passes over the
float, which is free to move only in the vertical direction.
The rot meter is always installed in the upright position.
When the fluid is flowing through the rot meter the three
forces are acting on the float.(drag force, buoyancy
force, weight of the float
 Contd .
Working principle of Rota meter
For a given flow rate the float remains stationary, when the
weight of the float is balanced by the buoyancy and drag force.
It is auto balancing system
The area between the float and vertical tube varies continuously
with vertical displacement of the float
For a particular liquid weight of the float and buoyancy force
are constant therefore drag force is to be maintained at constant
level.
Since the area of cross section of the float is constant the
pressure drop across it should be constant.
 Contd
When the float is in particular position for a flow
rate the differential pressure varies with the
square root of the flow rate
Therefore, to keep differential pressure constant
for some other flow rate the annular area in
between the float and the vertical tube must
change. (which means the float must move up
and down.

1. Electromagnetic Flow meter

The operation of a magnetic flow meter is based

on Faraday's Law.
When conductive fluids pass through a
magnetic field they generate electromotive
force in proportion to flow velocity.
The electromotive force is generated in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the
fluid motion and the magnetic field
Contd
 Contd
Used to measure volumetric flow rate of electrically conductive
fluids
(conductivity>10 micro ohm)
The instrument consists of cylindrical tube made of stainless
steel fitted with an insulating liner
The magnetic field that is perpendicular to the direction of flow
of liquid is created in the tube by installing energized field coils
in diametrically opposite side by side.
The voltage induced in the fluid is measured by two electrodes
inserted into opposite sides of the tube
=
Where E=emf in (volt)
V= velocity of the fluid (m/sec)
B=flux intensity in (tesla)
L=internal pipe diameter or distance between the two
electrodes.(in meter)
Advantage of electromagnetic flow meter
It is suitable for installation that can tolerate only a
small pressure drop
The absence of any internal part is very attractive
for measurement of the velocity of corrosive fluid
and dirty fluids
The operating principle is independent of fluid
density, and viscosity.
The output voltage is proportional to the average
velocity of fluid.
There is no difficulty of measurement of either
laminar or turbulent.
 Contd
There is no difficulty of measurement of either
laminar or turbulent.
It is one of the most accurate industrial flow
meter types.
It has no movable parts or other obstructions
inside the measuring tube, can be used with
corrosive fluids, and is maintenance-free.
Magnetic flow meters are therefore extensively
used in such industries as chemicals, food, iron
& steel, pulp & paper, and water supply.
Disadvantage of electromagnetic flow meter

The conductivity of the fluid must have some

minimum value. This excludes all hydrocarbons
It is suitable for measurement of fluid flow of
slurries provided that the liquid phase has
adequate conductivity.
The instrument is expensive in terms of initial
purchase cost. One of the reasons for high cost is
the need for careful calibration of each
instrument. Individually during manufacture as
there is considerable variations in the properties
of magnetic materials used
2. Ultra sonic flow meter
The ultrasonic signal is short burst of sine
wave when the frequency is above the
available range of frequency which is 20 kHz.
The typical frequency of ultrasonic wave is
10MHz.
There are two types of flow meter
Doppler shift
Transit time
Both methods depend on transmitting and
receiving of acoustic energy
Contd
Transit time Ultrasonic Flow meter
Fluid flowing through the pipe causes a time
difference between the transit times of the beams
traveling upstream and downstream the
measurement of the difference of time of travel
gives the flow velocity.
The detector is designed to measure the transit
time from upstream to downstream and vice versa
via phase shift measurement.
Typically the difference is 100ns in a total transit
time of 10s
Contd
Advantage of ultrasonic flow meters
The fluid flowing through the pipe is not
necessarily to be conductive.
It is particularly useful for measuring the
flow of corrosive fluids and slurries.
The instrument is one which clamps on
externally to existing pipe rather than
being inserted as an integral part of the
flow line.
Unlike other flow meters the ultrasonic flow
meter can be installed with out pipe cutting
Contd
Disadvantage
Ultrasonic flow meter is sensitive to velocity profile of the
flow.
Total flow
Includes devices used to measure the total quantity of
fluid flowing or the volume of liquid in a flow. Positive
displacement meters use containers of known size, which
are filled and emptied for a known number of times in a
given time period to give the total flow volume.
Two of the more common instruments for measuring total
flow are the piston flow meter and the mutating disc flow
meter.
Contd
Mass flow
By measuring the flow and knowing the density of a
fluid, the mass of the flow can be measured. Mass flow
instruments include constant speed impeller turbine
wheel-spring combinations that relate the spring force
to mass flow and devices that relate heat transfer to
mass flow Anemometer is an instrument that can be
used to measure gas flow rates. One method is to keep
the temperature of a heating element in a gas flow
constant and measure the power required. The higher
the flow rate, the higher the amount of heat required.
Contd
Dry particulate flow rate
Dry particulate flow rate can be measured as
the particulate are being carried on a conveyer
belt with the use of a load cell. This method is
illustrated in Figure below. To measure flow
rate it is only necessary to measure the weight
of material on a fixed length of the conveyer
belt.
Contd
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contd
Example :A conveyer belt is traveling at 19
cm/s, a load cell with a length of 1.1 m is
reading 3.7 kg. What is the flow rate of the
material on the belt?
Application Considerations of flow meter

Many different types of sensors can be

used for flow measurements. The choice
of any particular device for a specific
application depends on a number of
factors such as-
Reliability
Cost
Accuracy
pressure range
Temperature, wear and erosion, energy
loss, ease of replacement, particulates,
viscosity, and so forth
 Chapter-7
Signal processing and conditioning
Amplifiers
Amplifiers may amplify VOLTAGE,
CURRENT or BOTH in which case it is a
POWER AMPLIFIER.
Amplifier gain may be expressed as a ratio
or in decibels. The letter W indicates it
refers to power gain.
Contd
Contd

Amplifier gain may be expressed as a

ratio or in decibels. The letter W
indicates it refers to power gain. The
gain in db W is given by
Contd
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WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Calculate the power gain of an amplifier
which has an input of 5 mW and an output of 6
Watts.
SOLUTION
Gain = G = 10 log 6/0.005 = 10 log 1200 =
30.79 dbW
Contd

In practice, an amplifier generates some noise

and the input and output terminals have a
resistance that governs the ratio of current to
voltage. A model is shown in which a noise
generator is indicated and input and output
resistors.
Contd
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Contd

Since electric power into a resistive load is given

as
WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the gain of a VOLTAGE amplifier
with an input of 2 mV and output 10 V.
SOLUTION
G = 20 Log10 10/0.002 = 73.98 dbV
Contd

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
These have two inputs and the difference
between them is amplified. The
electronic symbol is shown.
Contd
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End of 1st semester class

Thanks for your great

attention!!!
Have a nice time !!!
Good luck.!!!!