Motivation

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 The Basic Motivation Process
Motivation is a process that starts with a
physiological or psychological deficiency or need
that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed
at a goal or incentive.
It consists of three interacting and interdependent
elements:
Needs
Drives
Incentives
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 Primary Motives
Criteria for a motive to be included in the primary
classification:
It must be unlearned.
It must be physiologically based.
The most commonly recognized primary motives
include hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain,
sex, and maternal concern.

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 Table 6.1 - Examples of Key Secondary Needs

Source: Adapted from Gary Yukl, Skills for Managers and Leaders, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1990, p 41. The examples of need for status were not
covered by Yukl.

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 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives
Extrinsic motivators:
Are tangible and visible to others.
Include pay, benefits, and promotions.
Include the drive to avoid punishment, such as
termination or being transferred.
Are usually contingency based.

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Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives (Continued)
Are necessary to attract people into the organization
and to keep them on the job.
Are often used to inspire workers to achieve at higher
levels or to reach new goals, as additional payoffs are
contingent on improved performance.
They do not explain every motivated effort made by
an individual employee.

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 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives (Continued)
Intrinsic motivators
Are internally generated.
Include feelings of responsibility, achievement, and
accomplishment.

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Figure 6.2 - The Theoretical Development of
Work Motivation

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Figure 6.3 - Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

A Hierarchy of
Work Motivation

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 Herzbergs Two Factor Theory

Sample: About 200 Accountants and Engineers

Method: Flanagans Critical Incident Technique to
collect data
Two Questions:
(a)When did you feel particularly good about your
job what turned you on?
(b)When did you feel exceptionally bad about your
job what turned you off?
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Table 6.2 - Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

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 Critical Analysis of Herzbergs Theory
Contributions:
The job design technique of job enrichment.
Extended Maslows needs hierarchy concept to make
it more applicable to work motivation.
Drew attention to the importance of job content
factors in work motivation.

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Critical Analysis of Herzbergs Theory (Continued)
Herzbergs theory oversimplifies the complexities
of work motivation.
Both the hygiene factors and satisfiers could be
substantially different when comparing groups.

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 Vrooms Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the

performance success in getting reward in
success reward employees eyes

See E X H I B I T 6-9
See E X H I B I T 6-9

2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-14

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Figure 6.5 - The Porter-Lawler Motivation
Model

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The Porter-Lawler Expectancy Theory of Work
Motivation
Implications for practice
Attempts to be more applications oriented.
Contributions to work motivation
Helps overcome barriers such as ability, practicality,
interdependence, and ambiguity.
Helps determine reward values, define desired
performance, achieve attainability, and link valued
rewards to performance.

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Equity Theory of Work Motivation

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 Equity Theory of Work Motivation (Continued)
Equity as an explanation of work motivation
Striving to restore equity
Research support for equity in workplace
Fairly supportive

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 The Relationship between Equity Theory and
Organizational Justice
The equity theory serves as the foundation for the
common thread of perceived fairness among the
following dimensions of justice:
Distributive justice; Procedural justice; Interactional
justice
Organizational justice can help explain why
employees retaliate against both inequitable
outcomes and inappropriate processes.

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 Attribution Theory
Attribution refers to how people explain the cause
of anothers or their own behavior.
There are two general types of attributions that
people make: dispositional attributions and
situational attributions.
Attribution theory is concerned with the
relationship between personal social perception
and interpersonal behavior.
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 Attribution Theory (Continued)
Using locus of control, work behavior may be
explained by whether employees perceive their
outcomes as controlled internally or externally.
Attributions are related to organizational
symbolism.
This theory contributes a great deal to the better
understanding of work motivation and
organizational behavior.
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Figure 6.6 - Kelleys Model of Attribution

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 Attribution Errors
Fundamental attribution error
Self-serving bias

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Other Work Motivation Theories: Control and
Agency
Control theory: Degree that individuals perceive
they are in control of their own lives, or are in
control of their jobs.
Agency theory: Interests of principals and agents
diverge or may be in conflict with one another.
Helps better understand the motivation of managers
in todays organizations.
Criticism: Strongly emphasizes the roles that various
forms of extrinsic motives play in shaping behaviors.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design
Job rotation
Involves moving employees from one relatively
simple job to another after short time periods.
Advantages include: reduced odds of injury, increased
flexibility, greater awareness of operations.
Disadvantage: each individual task eventually
becomes as boring as the rest of the simple tasks.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design
(Continued)

Job enlargement
Involves increasing the number of tasks each
employee performs.
Reduces the efficiency with which tasks are
completed.
Does not necessarily result in improved employee
satisfaction and commitment.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design
(Continued)

Job enrichment
Is concerned with designing jobs that include a
greater variety of work content.
Require a higher level of knowledge and skill.
Give workers more autonomy and responsibility in
terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own
performance.
Provide the opportunity for personal growth and a
meaningful work experience.
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 Figure 6.7 - The Hackman-Oldham job
Characteristics Model of Work Motivation

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Figure 6.8 - Specific Guidelines for Redesigning Jobs for the
More-Effective Practice of Human Resource Management

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Motivational Application Through Goal Setting
Goal setting is the process of motivating
employees by establishing effective and
meaningful performance targets.
Goals provide a directional nature to peoples
behavior and guide their thoughts and actions to
one outcome rather than another.
Goal setting can be used to create psychological
contracts with employees.
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 Figure 6.9 - Model for Relating Goals to
Performance and Satisfaction

Source: Adapted from Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation, American Psychologist, Vol. 57,
No. 9, 2002, p. 714.

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 Other Performance Management Application
Techniques Associated with Goal Setting
Learning goal orientation
Performance goal orientation
Benchmarking
Stretch target
Goal source

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Questions

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