Decision Making

-CONTROL CHARTS for Variables and Attributes

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 Types of Data
Variables Attributes
Characteristics that Defect-related
can take any real characteristics
value Classify products
May be in whole or as either good or
in fractional bad or count
numbers defects
Continuous random Categorical or
variables discrete random
variables
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 Control Charts for Variables
For variables that have
continuous dimensions
Weight, speed, length,
strength, etc.
x-charts are to control
the central tendency of the process
R-charts are to control the dispersion of
the process
These two charts must be used together

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 Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we know
Upper control limit (UCL) = x + z x
Lower control limit (LCL) = x - z x
where x = mean of the sample means
or a target value set for the process
z = number of normal standard
deviations
x = standard deviation of the
sample means
= / n
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 Setting Control Limits
Hour 1 Hour Mean Hour Mean
Sample Weight of 1 16.1 7 15.2
Number Oat Flakes 2 16.8 8 16.4
1 17 3 15.5 9 16.3
2 13 4 16.5 10 14.8
3 16 5 16.5 11 14.2
4 18 6 16.4 12 17.3
n=9 5 17
6 16 For 99.73% control limits, z = 3
7 15
8 17 UCLx = x + z x = 16 + 3(1/3) = 17 ozs
9 16
Mean 16.1 LCLx = x - z x = 16 - 3(1/3) = 15 ozs
=1
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 Setting Control Limits
Control Chart
for sample of Variation due
Out of to assignable
9 boxes control causes
17 = UCL

16 = Mean Variation due to

natural causes

15 = LCL

| | | | | | | | | | | | Variation due
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 to assignable
Out of causes
Sample number control

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 Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we dont know

Upper control limit (UCL) = x + A2R

Lower control limit (LCL) = x - A2R

where R = average range of the

samples
A2 = control chart factor found in
Table S6.1
x = mean of the sample means
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 Control Chart Factors
Sample Size Mean Factor Upper Range Lower
Range
n A2 D4 D3
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 .729 2.282 0
5 .577 2.115 0
6 .483 2.004 0
7 .419 1.924 0.076
8 .373 1.864 0.136
9 .337 1.816 0.184
10 .308 1.777 0.223
12 .266 1.716 0.284

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 Setting Control Limits
Process average x = 12 ounces
Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5

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 Setting Control Limits
Process average x = 12 ounces
Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5

UCLx = x + A2R
= 12 + (.577)(.25)
= 12 + .144
= 12.144 ounces
From
Table S6.1

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 Setting Control Limits
Process average x = 12 ounces
Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5

UCLx = x + A2R UCL = 12.144

= 12 + (.577)(.25)
= 12 + .144 Mean = 12
= 12.144 ounces

LCLx = x - A2R LCL = 11.857

= 12 - .144
= 11.857 ounces
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 R Chart

Type of variables control chart

Shows sample ranges over time
Difference between smallest and
largest values in sample
Monitors process variability
Independent from process mean

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 Setting Chart Limits
For R-Charts

Upper control limit (UCLR) = D4R

Lower control limit (LCLR) = D3R

where
R = average range of the
samples
D3 and D4 = control chart factors
from Table S6.1

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 Setting Control Limits
Average range R = 5.3 pounds
Sample size n = 5
From Table S6.1 D4 = 2.115, D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R UCL = 11.2

= (2.115)(5.3)
= 11.2 pounds Mean = 5.3

LCLR = D3 R LCL = 0

= (0)(5.3)
= 0 pounds
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 Mean and Range Charts
(a)
These (Sampling mean is
sampling shifting upward but
distributions range is consistent)
result in the
charts below

UCL
(x-chart detects
x-chart shift in central
tendency)
LCL
UCL
(R-chart does not
R-chart detect change in
mean)
LCL

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 Mean and Range Charts
(b)
These
(Sampling mean
sampling
is constant but
distributions
dispersion is
result in the
increasing)
charts below

UCL
(x-chart does not
x-chart detect the increase
in dispersion)
LCL
UCL
(R-chart detects
R-chart increase in
dispersion)
LCL

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 Steps In Creating Control
Charts
1. Take samples from the population and
compute the appropriate sample statistic
2. Use the sample statistic to calculate control
limits and draw the control chart
3. Plot sample results on the control chart and
determine the state of the process (in or out of
control)
4. Investigate possible assignable causes and
take any indicated actions
5. Continue sampling from the process and reset
the control limits when necessary
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 Manual and Automated
Control Charts

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 Control Charts for Attributes
For variables that are categorical
Good/bad, yes/no,
acceptable/unacceptable
Measurement is typically counting
defectives
Charts may measure
Percent defective (p-chart)
Number of defects (c-chart)
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 Control Limits for p-Charts
Population will be a binomial distribution,
but applying the Central Limit Theorem
allows us to assume a normal distribution
for the sample statistics

UCLp = p + z p^ p(1 - p)
p =
^
n
LCLp = p - z p^
where p = mean fraction defective in the sample
z = number of standard deviations
^ p = standard deviation of the sampling dis
n = sample size
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 p-Chart for Data Entry
Sample Number Fraction Sample Number Fraction
Number of Errors Defective Number of Errors Defective
1 6 .06 11 6 .06
2 5 .05 12 1 .01
3 0 .00 13 8 .08
4 1 .01 14 7 .07
5 4 .04 15 5 .05
6 2 .02 16 4 .04
7 5 .05 17 11 .11
8 3 .03 18 3 .03
9 3 .03 19 0 .00
10 2 .02 20 4 .04
Total = 80
80 (.04)(1 - .04)
p= (100)(20) = .04 p^ = = .02
100
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 p-Chart for Data Entry
UCLp = p + z p^ = .04 + 3(.02) = .10
LCLp = p - z p^ = .04 - 3(.02) = 0
.11
.10 UCLp = 0.10
.09
Fraction defective

.08
.07
.06
.05
.04 p = 0.04
.03
.02
.01 LCLp = 0.00
| | | | | | | | | |
.00
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number
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 p-Chart for Data Entry
UCLp = p + z p^ = .04 + 3(.02) = .10
Possible
LCLp = p - z p^ = .04 - 3(.02) =assignable
0
causes present
.11
.10 UCLp = 0.10
.09
Fraction defective

.08
.07
.06
.05
.04 p = 0.04
.03
.02
.01 LCLp = 0.00
| | | | | | | | | |
.00
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number
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 Control Limits for c-Charts
Population will be a Poisson distribution,
but applying the Central Limit Theorem
allows us to assume a normal distribution
for the sample statistics

UCLc = c + 3 c LCLc = c - 3 c

where c = mean number defective in the sam

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 c-Chart for Cab Company
c = 54 complaints/9 days = 6 complaints/day

UCLc = c + 3 c 14 UCLc = 13.35

Number defective
=6+3 6 12
10
= 13.35
8
6 c= 6
LCLc = c - 3 c 4
2
=6-3 6 LCLc = 0
0 | | | | | | | | |
=0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Day

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 Managerial Issues and
Control Charts
Three major management decisions:

Select points in the processes that

need SPC
Determine the appropriate charting
technique
Set clear policies and procedures

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 Which Control Chart to Use
Variables Data
Using an x-chart and R-chart:
Observations are variables
Collect 20 - 25 samples of n = 4, or n =
5, or more, each from a stable process
and compute the mean for the x-chart
and range for the R-chart
Track samples of n observations each

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 Which Control Chart to Use
Attribute Data
Using the p-chart:
Observations are attributes that can
be categorized in two states
We deal with fraction, proportion, or
percent defectives
Have several samples, each with
many observations

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 Which Control Chart to Use
Attribute Data
Using a c-Chart:
Observations are attributes whose
defects per unit of output can be
counted
The number counted is a small part of
the possible occurrences
Defects such as number of blemishes
on a desk, number of typos in a page
of text, flaws in a bolt of cloth

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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Normal behavior.
Process is in control.

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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

One plot out above (or
below). Investigate for
cause. Process is out
of control.
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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Trends in either
direction, 5 plots.
Investigate for cause of
progressive change.
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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Two plots very near
lower (or upper)
control. Investigate for
cause.
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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Run of 5 above (or
below) central line.
Investigate for cause.
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 Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Erratic behavior.
Investigate.

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