Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
University of Edinburgh
Oil & Gas Systems
Engineering
Overview of Module
1. Introduction
2. Market Drivers
3. Offshore Structures
4. Onshore Structures
5. Loadings
6. Support Vessels &
Helicopters
7. Drilling
8. Types of Wells
9. Control Methods
10.Wellheads
11.Manifolds
12.Subsea Production Systems
13.Oil & Gas Transportation
14.End of Life Activities
2
Introduction
3
The Oil & Gas Production
Stream
Key Drivers
Economic
Every decision must be made with a financial implication in
mind.
Technical
What the installation requires in order to operate safely and
efficiently.
5
Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Is there an export Location of find, and Specification of
route for oil? proximity to pipelines. liquids for tanker
Space (Ullage) in much more onerous
pipeline capacity. than for pipeline,
hence more
processing needed.
Is there an export Location of find, and If no export route,
route for gas? proximity to pipelines. then may require gas
Space (Ullage) in injection for disposal
pipeline capacity. of gas
What is the water Location of find. Influences what type
depth? of structure may
push towards floating
structures in deeper
water.
6
Size of reserves Geology, Marginal fields may
Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Type of oil Different oil weights E.g. Nynas in Dundee
are attractive to prefer very heavy oil
different refineries for bitumen
production for roads.
Brent Crude is a
good general mix that
any petrol/fuel
refinery would be
able to process.
Type of gas Treatment will Weight
influence weight, e.g.
removal of impurities.
Weight of Topsides Oil spec, gas spec, More weight means
water processing, etc. bigger support,
means more
7
expensive.
Offshore Structures
Global distribution of offshore oil & gas
developments
8
Offshore Structures
Up to
520m Up to
Provides 520m
Well 450-
oil
known 900m
Resists
storage Up to
design & fatigue in
1800
economic deep
m
Economical
al water
in deep
water Up to Up to
Approximate 3000m 3000m
Movable with many
Depths uses
Advanta
ge
10
Stability in deep Up to
Gravity-based Structures (GBS)
Modular concrete base
12
Steel Jacket Fixed Platforms
Most common >7000 worldwide
Typically 4-16 leg structures
Pile driven into sea bed to resist loadings
Potential for multi-jacket installations
Used in water depths up to 520m
13
Launch Installed Jackets
Jacket is built horizontally
To transport to barge, the jacket is put
onto skids and slid along track of steel
beams
When at the offshore location the jacket
is slid off the barge and into the water
Two parallel trusses are used to help the
jacket sustain the reactions during
launch
Rocker arms are attached to the stern of
the barge to reduce forces in the jacket
14
Bridge-Linked Structures
The Claymore complex
Claymore Production Platform
Two fixed steel bridge-linked platforms
(CPP)
CPP installed in 1976
CAP installed in 1996
Weighs approx. 44,000 tonnes
CPP is an eight-legged steel jacket
CAP is a four-legged steel jacket
Water depth of 110m
Provides process and drilling facilities
On average manned by 144 people
Exports oil, not gas
Claymore Accommodation
Platform (CAP)
15
Compliant Towers
Similar to fixed steel jackets
Narrow and flexible tower
Flexibility allow operation in deep water
Attached to sea floor
Resists small steady waves that cause
fatigue
Used in water depths of 450-900m
Example: Petronius Compliant Tower
One of the tallest freestanding structures in the world
Uses flexible pilings to withstand hurricane forces
Located 130 miles South East of New Orleans
Water depth 535m
Installed and began production in 2000
Weighs approx. 40,000 tonnes
16
Tension leg platforms (TLP)
Floating production facility tethered to seabed
Tension legs made from steel pipes or wire ropes connected to
foundations
Tensioned legs resist vertical loads from sea and wind. This limits
vertical motion experienced by platform
Foundations are piled into seabed
Used in water depths of up to 1800m
Devil's Tower Truss spar platform developed for the Gulf of Mexico
586 feet in length and in 5,610 feet of water (deepest spar in the world at installation) 21
Offshore Structures
Topsides
Crane
Drilling
Derrick
Process
Helideck Area
Flare
Boom
Accommoda
tion
Modules Cellar
Lifebo Deck
Spider
ats
Deck
22
Offshore Structures below
LAT
Pump
Caissons
Jack Conductor Guide
et Frame
Riser
Conductor
(wells) Riser Clamp
Pile
Cluster
Subsea
Pipeline
Mud
Mat 23
Onshore Structures
Drilling rigs are built over land discovered to have oil and/or gas
Drilling rigs sizes and types vary greatly. Some are small and
mobile, others are large and powerful
Service rigs are used to complete wells and drilling rig is relocated
to another well. This allows for increased productivity and
efficiency.
24
Loadings
Typical load considerations for all structures (onshore and offshore):
Environmental loads - Loads caused by environment i.e. wave, wind, ice etc.
Onshore structures are typically dominated by dead loads and live loads.
Offshore structures are typically dominated by environmental loads.
International codes of practice dictate that recurrence intervals for design events must be
considered. For example a 10 year, 100 year and 10,000 year wave event could be
considered when designing a platform .
25
Loadings
4
1 5
6 3
9 27
0 0
18
0
Wave Phase Angle
(Degrees)
Waves are generated by the wind on the surface of
water
As the wave passes through the structure, the
applied loading varies depending on the phase angle
The air gap is the distance measured between the
topsides and the crest of the wave
A negative air gap occurs when the wave passes
onto the topsides and creates a wave in deck load
27
Loadings Wind
N
N
NW
Win E
d
+10m
Reference W E
Velocity
MSL S S
W E
S
Wind loads act above the Mean Sea Level
A wind interval of less than one minute is considered a gust
A wind interval longer than one minute is considered a sustained
wind
Winds with intervals of one hour are analysed with extreme waves
and current loads
Extreme wind speeds are analysed without regards to waves
The wind velocity reference point is given as +10m above the Mean28
Sea Level
Support Vessels &
Helicopters
Supply Boat
Take supplies to and from offshore
installations
Designed to withstand severe weather
Can also be used for towing, handling anchors
and providing fire fighting cover
Standby Boat
Designed to provide first aid facilities to
installations
Previous to the Piper Alpha incident converted
trawler boats were used as standby boats
Now specially made boats are constructed
Survey Boats
Used for gathering data on potential oil & gas 29
Support Vessels &
Helicopters
DSV (Diving Support Vessels)
Provides a stable platform for divers to carry
out operations
These can come in ship form or as a semi-
submersible
DSV in the picture to the left is the Uncle
John, regarded one of the most successful
DSV in operation
Helicopters
Primary method of transport from onshore to
offshore for personnel
Before helicopters, boat was the main
method of transporting personnel offshore
The Super Puma is the most common type
of helicopter found in North Sea operations
30
The History of Drilling
1840s: Drilling for oil began when oil was discovered seeping through ground fissures in
Pennsylvania.
Drilling was originally done for water wells and salt but this changed after people realised
the potential of oil.
Late 1800s: oil and gas seeps were noticed in the sea off the coast of California and it was
theorised that there must be offshore oil fields.
Piers were built to reach points far offshore and rotary drilling was developed because
percussive drilling was impossible in water.
1896: The Summerland onshore field was discovered to extend offshore and became the
first offshore oilfield to be drilled.
32
Cost of Drilling
Depends on: Does not include:
33
Utilities Required
Power Generation Drainage System
34
The Drilling Process
Modern drilling uses a rotary drill bit to drill
through rock:
A derrick is setup connected to draw works with drill
lines
The drill lines connect a crown block to the derrick
and draw works which allow it to travel up and down
A hook connects a power swivel to the crown block
36
Drill Bits (1)
There are two main types of drill bits; Tricone and fixed cutter.
The first two-cone rotary drill bit was developed and patented by
Howard Hughes Snr. in 1909.
It revolutionised the industry by allowing wells to be drilled faster and
deeper.
In 1933 the Tricone drill bit was invented and patented by Hughes
company (now Baker Hughes oilfield services).
Patent lasted until 1951 when other companies were allowed to
develop there own.
Tricone Drill Bit:
37
Drill Bits (2)
The second bit developed was a fixed cutter bit which relies on
percussion and rotation of the drillstring.
Fixed cutter bits are typically made of polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC). The fixed cutter is the more commonly used bit because of
durability resulting in fewer bit change outs.
38
Drill Pipe
Drill pipe is used to transmit drilling mud to the bit and
provide power for the drill bit.
39
Casing
Casing is a larger diameter drill pipe that is used for supporting the borehole and
is usually cemented in place. It also provides extra support for the surface
formation so that the borehole does not collapse whilst drilling.
Provides isolation for different zones of the well so that hydrocarbons will not
seep into upper formations and find a way to the surface.
Also provides support in the well bore should a blow out occur and will prevent
the surface formation from being blown out by the pressure from a reservoir.
Sizes are between 18 35 inches and the drill pipe will then be lowered through
providing a space between the casing wall and the drill pipe called the annulus.
This is where drill cuttings will rise.
40
Deepwater Drilling
Deeper well higher pressure greater challenge in retrieving
hydrocarbons.
41
Drilling pressure has to be balanced.
Oil Wells
Oil well is the general term for boring through the Earths surface
with intent of finding and retrieving hydrocarbons.
42
Types of Wells
Wells can produce:
Oil only
Oil and Gas
Gas only
Historically natural gas produced was of very low value so was typically
disposed of by flaring.
With rising oil prices, gas is becoming a preferred source of power for
electricity and heating due to its abundance and relatively low price
compared with oil. It is a cleaner burning fuel compared with oil and coal.
There is new high demand for natural gas in the United States with a
boom in shale gas due to innovation in drilling technology.
43
Types of Wells
Classifying oil wells by their purpose:
Exploration Wells Used to test an area for oil and gas accumulations.
Appraisal Wells Drilling wells to test flow rates and total volumes of hydrocarbons.
Injection Wells Used for water or gas injection to increase recovery factor.
Disposal Wells Wells drilled to dispose of produced water, gas or waste that can
either not be disposed of overboard or shipped back to shore.
Satellite Wells Wells that are drilled and connected to a subsea manifold which
produce back to an original production platform. Used when the accumulation is far
from existing wells and is uneconomical to require its own platform.
44
Drilling Fluids
There are a number of different fluids used in drilling for
different reasons or scenarios that require them.
45
Drilling Mud - Function
There are numerous functions for drilling mud:
Primarily used to maintain hydrostatic pressure on the reservoir to prevent the
formation pressure causing a blowout whilst drilling.
Also helps to support the wellbore and prevent collapse.
Two main types of mud that can be used; water-based and oil-based.
Water is typically used but oil performs better for drilling certain formations such
as high temperature, high pressure reservoirs.
Oil-based mud is a lot more expensive to make and far more harmful to the
environment.
46
Drilling Mud - Properties
The mud is mixed by a mud logger and mud engineer that determine which
properties are required for a mud.
These properties can change as the well deepens, such as higher density to maintain
hydrostatic pressure as the drill bit nears the reservoir and more viscosity to maintain
circulation of drill cuttings.
Cement can also be used for plugging a well whilst changing out a drill bit
to prevent blowouts or well abandonment.
The greater formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into
the wellbore:
This forced fluid flow is called a kick.
An underbalance in mud can cause fluids to flow from the reservoir into the
wellbore.
All the methods are similar but vary slightly in their approach, some aim
to eliminate a kick instantly then restart mud circulation when the well
is back under control and others slowly bring the well under control
without stopping circulation.
The two most common methods used are the Drillers Method and the
Weight and Wait method.
52
Drillers Method
The Drillers method uses two circulations of mud to control a kick.
The first circulation balances the shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) and shut-in casing
pressure (SICP). The original mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP. This ensures the
pressure in the drill pipe and the annulus are the same to maintain circulation.
The second circulation uses kill mud which is heavier to eliminate the kick by increasing
hydrostatic pressure. The casing pressure is bled off whilst the kill mud is delivered to
the drill bit to ensure that circulation can continue when it rises up the annulus without
a rise in pressure from mud already in the annulus.
The kill mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP = 0 kpa/psi which will indicate that the kick
has been eliminated.
The advantages of the Drillers method is that fewer calculations are required and
circulation can begin immediately, circulation is also maintained.
The disadvantages are that a kick has more time to develop due to the original mud
being circulated which means hydrostatic pressure is less than the reservoir pressure.
The difference in pressures mean that there is more stress and strain at the bottom of
the drill string which can lead to ballooning/bursting or collapsing the drill string.
53
Weight and Wait Method
The Weight and Wait method only uses one circulation.
When a kick is detected the well is shut in and the required kill mud weight
is calculated.
The SICP is bled off while the kill mud is circulated in. The mud is circulated
until it reaches the surface through the annulus and if SICP = SIDPP = 0
then the kick has been eliminated.
The advantages are that a kick has no time to develop due to shutting in
the well so there is no chance of it creating a blowout. High pump pressures
arent required to circulate out the kick before circulating in the kill mud.
The disadvantages are that gas from the kick can migrate upwards through
the annulus during the shut-in, complicating restart procedures. There are
more calculations to do and if the wrong mud weight is calculated the
procedure must be repeated.
54
Blowouts
Kicks develop into blowouts if no action is taken and /or safety measures are
ineffective.
Formation fluids flow up the wellbore and annulus during a kick but reach the
surface during a blowout.
Blowout preventers (BOPs) are used to isolate the well while hydrostatic balance
is regained.
Once all contaminant has been circulated out, the casing pressure should have
reached zero.
Blowouts can occur during well testing, well completion, production or work over
activities.
55
Blow Out Preventers
BOP Ram
Types:
a Blind ram
Acids and fracturing fluids may be pumped into the well to fracture,
clean, prepare and stimulate the reservoir.
Area above the reservoir section is packed off inside the casing and
connected to the surface via a smaller diameter pipe called tubing.
57
Production Stage
Once the well has been drilled the top is usually fitted with a
christmas tree.
Christmas trees on their own can produce the well but sometimes
artificial drive methods are required.
The well will flow as long as the pressure in the reservoir is greater
than the pressure at the wellhead.
58
Wellhead
Wellhead sits on top of the well that leads
to the reservoir:
Provides the structural and pressure-
containing interface for the drilling and
production equipment
Allows easy access to the well
60
Manifolds
Surface Subsea
Manifold Manifold
An assembly of pipes, valves and fittings by which fluid from one or
more sources is selectively directed to various process systems
Connect wells to export pipelines and risers
Merge flow from several wells and transfer them to flowlines
Manage the distribution of injected water, gas and chemicals
Onshore the manifold creates efficient reservoir utilisation by splitting
the flow from pipes into gas, oil, water etc.
Offshore, dry completion wells feed into production manifolds whereas
subsea production systems feed into production risers
61
Subsea Production Systems
Wells located on sea floor rather than the
surface
Feeder Lines
Transports processed oil and/or gas
to transmission lines Product Lines
Up to 508mm diameter Carry refined petroleum products from
refinery to distribution centre
Transmission Lines
Travel long distances Distribution Lines
Crude oil delivered to refineries or Enable local distribution from a
storage transmission system
Natural gas delivered to industry or Low pressure pipes
distribution system Can be large but majority are less
Large diameter (can be over 1m) than 152mm in diameter
65
Transporting Oil & Gas
Tankers
Tankers:
Crude tankers carry unrefined oil from platform to refinery and range from 5000
to 450,000 metric tons
Product tankers carry refined oil from refinery to market and range from 5000 to
80,000 metric tons
67
Transporting Oil & Gas
Tankers
Gas Tankers (more commonly known as Gas Carriers or
LNG Carriers)
68
Transportation - Tanker vs. Pipeline
Tanker Export
Carries hydrocarbons at lower pressures than pipelines
Larger process areas creating extra weight on offshore
installations
Can easily transport hydrocarbons anywhere
Weather dependent
Pipelines
Smaller process area
Can transport hydrocarbons at higher pressures
Feasibility is dependent on installation location
Difficult to maintain
69
Well Abandonment
The life of a well is shortened when the economic limit is raised.
70
Asset Decommissioning
Decommissioning is the final stage in a platforms life and is
regulated by the Department of Energy and Climate Change using
legislation under the Petroleum Act 1998 (for UK oilfield
developments).
All wells must be plugged using kill mud and cement to ensure
there is no seepage after abandonment.
Minerals Management
Service requires rig removal
within a year after
abandonment therefore
turning into artificial reefs
saves costs and time.
72
Useful Websites and References
(Infrastructure)
1. Offshore Geotechnical Engineering E.T. Richard Dean
2. Offshore Engineering Angus Mathers
3. ABB Oil and Gas Production Handbook
4. Subsea Engineering Handbook Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
5. Subsea Pipelines and Risers Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
6. Dynamics of Offshore Structuers James F. Wilson
7. From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker Andrew G. Spyrou
8. http://www.rigzone.com
9. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects
10. http://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas-overview/transporting-oil-and-natural-gas/oil-tankers/~/media/Files/Oil-and-Natural-
Gas/Tankers/Tankers-LoRes.pdf
11. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/may2011/2011-05-18-091.html
12. http://s08.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/usa/downloads/alaska/os101-ch3.pdf
13. http://www.maerskdrilling.com/Documents/PDF/Drillingrigs/Specific-Rigs/heydar_aliyev.pdf
14. http://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ships/8765565/vessel:HEYDAR_ALIYEV
15. http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/extraction-offshore/
16. http://www.maersk-fpsos.com/Documents/Factsheet_Curlew_web.pdf
17. http://www.politico.com/blogs/jonathanmartin/0808/McCain_finally_gets_to_oil_rig.html
18. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum
19. http://ecokita.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/oil-field-1-web.jpg
20. http://completioninfo.com/christmas_tree.html.html
21. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
22. http://www.mtcltd-blog.com/gallery/offshore-onshore-package/
23. http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/subsea_trees_manifolds_and_connection_systems/Cluster_Manifolds.jsp
24. http://www2.emersonprocess.com/SiteCollectionImages/News%20Images/SubseaGraphic_HiRes.jpg
25. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html
26. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/oilandgaspipelines.pdf
27. http://www.cepa.com/about-pipelines/types-of-pipelines/natural-gas-pipelines
28. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/thestructuralintegrityofoilandgastransmissionpipelines.pdf
29. http://www.technip.com/en/press/technip-lay-world%E2%80%99s-deepest-gas-pipeline-shell-gulf-mexico
73
Useful Websites and
1.
References (Drilling)
http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/DEEPWATER_ReporttothePresident_FINAL.pdf
2. http://www.geomore.com/oil-and-gas-traps/
3. http://petrochase.com/blog/how-does-an-oil-formation-take-place/
4. http://www.encapgroup.com/drilling/
5. http://www.epicwelldrilling.com/well-diagram/
6. http://www.petroleum-machine.com.p022_10_1.html
7. http://www.offshore-technology.com/features/featuredisused-oil-rigs-living-reefs-pictures
8. http://www.stockopedia.co.uk/content/independant-resourses-hit-by-second-well-disappointment-in-tunisia-49150/
9. http://www.offshoreenergytoday.com/conocophillips-hires-essar-wildcat-rig-for-drilling-offshore-indonesia/
10. http://www.premier-oil.com/premieroil/glossary
11. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms.aspx?LookIn=term%20name&filter=kick
12. http://petrowiki.org/Kicks
13. http://www.lloyds.com/news-and-insight/news-and-feactures/market-news/industry-news-news-2013/piper-alpha-after-the-fire
14. http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts/natural-sources.htm
15. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/07/100722-bp-gulf-oil-seeps-leaks-science-environment-nation/
16. http://www.manaspetroleum,com/s/Kyrgy.asp?ReportID=175759,175764
17. http://geology.com/articles/horizontal-drilling/
18. http://money.cnn.com/2008/10/07/smallbusiness/horizonal_well.fsb/
19. http://offshore-technology.com/features/feature1033
20. http://www.3datdepth.com/applications-2/
21. http://www.woodgroup.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/news-tech-articles/2007-05_DevelopRightConceptOffshore_Mustang.pdf
22. http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/production.htm
23. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/elgin/elgin5.html
24. http://aoghs.org/offshore-technology-history/offshore-oil-history/
25. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/platform-spar.htm
26. http://cenvironment.blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/seven-types-of-offshore-oil-production.html
27. http://www.greenworldtrust.org.uk/Science/Scientific/abiotic.htm
28. http://anjungsainssmkss.wordpress.com/2012/10/24/hydrocarbons/
29. http://www.sjvgeology.org/oil/exploration.html
30. http://blogs.ft.com/energy-source/2011/03/24/reasons-behind-failure-of-the-blowout-preventer-in-the-macondo-well/#axzz2bq0Q8zRz
74