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Infrastructure & Drilling

University of Edinburgh
Oil & Gas Systems
Engineering
Overview of Module
1. Introduction
2. Market Drivers
3. Offshore Structures
4. Onshore Structures
5. Loadings
6. Support Vessels &
Helicopters
7. Drilling
8. Types of Wells
9. Control Methods
10.Wellheads
11.Manifolds
12.Subsea Production Systems
13.Oil & Gas Transportation
14.End of Life Activities
2
Introduction

3
The Oil & Gas Production
Stream

Upstream: The exploration and extraction of oil & gas


Midstream: Storage, processing and transportation of resources
Downstream: The refining, distribution and marketing of oil & gas
products 4
What drives infrastructure
decisions?

Key Drivers
Economic
Every decision must be made with a financial implication in
mind.

Technical
What the installation requires in order to operate safely and
efficiently.

Reservoir Size Transportati Process Topsides Platform


Location Access
& Type on Method Area Weight Type

5
Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Is there an export Location of find, and Specification of
route for oil? proximity to pipelines. liquids for tanker
Space (Ullage) in much more onerous
pipeline capacity. than for pipeline,
hence more
processing needed.
Is there an export Location of find, and If no export route,
route for gas? proximity to pipelines. then may require gas
Space (Ullage) in injection for disposal
pipeline capacity. of gas
What is the water Location of find. Influences what type
depth? of structure may
push towards floating
structures in deeper
water.
6
Size of reserves Geology, Marginal fields may
Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Type of oil Different oil weights E.g. Nynas in Dundee
are attractive to prefer very heavy oil
different refineries for bitumen
production for roads.
Brent Crude is a
good general mix that
any petrol/fuel
refinery would be
able to process.
Type of gas Treatment will Weight
influence weight, e.g.
removal of impurities.
Weight of Topsides Oil spec, gas spec, More weight means
water processing, etc. bigger support,
means more
7
expensive.
Offshore Structures
Global distribution of offshore oil & gas
developments

8
Offshore Structures

Over 10,000 offshore structures worldwide


Ranging from few tens to several hundred thousand tonnes
In water depths of 1m 2km
Constructed from primarily steel and concrete
9
Offshore Platforms

Up to
520m Up to
Provides 520m
Well 450-
oil
known 900m
Resists
storage Up to
design & fatigue in
1800
economic deep
m
Economical
al water
in deep
water Up to Up to
Approximate 3000m 3000m
Movable with many
Depths uses
Advanta
ge
10
Stability in deep Up to
Gravity-based Structures (GBS)
Modular concrete base

Natural buoyancy provided by air voids during


construction and transportation
Air voids are flooded to sink into position

Can include oil storage tanks in base

Used in water depths up to 520m


Example: Beryl Alpha
Condeep Gravity Based Structure
4-legged jacket RAT (riser access tower) and flare tower
are bridge linked to the main platform
Located 200 miles NE of Aberdeen
Positioned in water depth of 117.5m
Production began in 1976
Weighs approx. 200,000 tonnes
Oil is stored in concrete structure and transferred to
tankers 11
Gravity-based Structure
Installation
Concrete is poured at an onshore
location

Air is left in storage cells to keep


structure afloat during tow-out

Structure is towed out to position


by boat

The storage cells are flooded to


allow the platform to lower it onto
the seabed

Platform in pictures opposite is the


Hibernia

12
Steel Jacket Fixed Platforms
Most common >7000 worldwide
Typically 4-16 leg structures
Pile driven into sea bed to resist loadings
Potential for multi-jacket installations
Used in water depths up to 520m

13
Launch Installed Jackets
Jacket is built horizontally
To transport to barge, the jacket is put
onto skids and slid along track of steel
beams
When at the offshore location the jacket
is slid off the barge and into the water
Two parallel trusses are used to help the
jacket sustain the reactions during
launch
Rocker arms are attached to the stern of
the barge to reduce forces in the jacket

14
Bridge-Linked Structures
The Claymore complex
Claymore Production Platform
Two fixed steel bridge-linked platforms
(CPP)
CPP installed in 1976
CAP installed in 1996
Weighs approx. 44,000 tonnes
CPP is an eight-legged steel jacket
CAP is a four-legged steel jacket
Water depth of 110m
Provides process and drilling facilities
On average manned by 144 people
Exports oil, not gas

Claymore Accommodation
Platform (CAP)
15
Compliant Towers
Similar to fixed steel jackets
Narrow and flexible tower
Flexibility allow operation in deep water
Attached to sea floor
Resists small steady waves that cause
fatigue
Used in water depths of 450-900m
Example: Petronius Compliant Tower
One of the tallest freestanding structures in the world
Uses flexible pilings to withstand hurricane forces
Located 130 miles South East of New Orleans
Water depth 535m
Installed and began production in 2000
Weighs approx. 40,000 tonnes
16
Tension leg platforms (TLP)
Floating production facility tethered to seabed
Tension legs made from steel pipes or wire ropes connected to
foundations
Tensioned legs resist vertical loads from sea and wind. This limits
vertical motion experienced by platform
Foundations are piled into seabed
Used in water depths of up to 1800m

Example: Neptune Tension Leg


Platform
Located 120 miles off the coast of Louisiana
Water depth of 1300m
Atlantia SeaStar single column design
Three pontoons with two tendons each
Tendons are 914mm diameter
Foundation piles are 2.5m diameter and 126m
deep
17
Semi-submersibles
Typically a four column design with four pontoons
Uses include: Drilling Rigs, Flotels, Crane Barges,
Exploration Vessels and Production Facilities
Either moored or fixed by dynamic positioning
Lower hull can be filled with water to provide stability
Relies on support ships to tow it into position
Used in water depths of 60m-3000m

Example: Heydar Aliyev Semi-


Submersible
Constructed in 2003
Located in the Caspian Sea
Operates in depths between 75-1000m
Used as a Drilling Rig - 9144m drilling capacity
Weighs 20620 tonnes
Accommodates up to 130 people 18
Floating, Production, Storage and
Offloading units (FPSOs)
Look like a large ship
Ideal for deep water
Either moored or fixed by dynamic positioning
Used in:
Small oil fields as it can be moved
Where there are no pipeline networks for Export
Water depths of 3000m

Maersk Curlew FPSO

Previously a tanker - converted to


an FPSO in 1997
Located 137 miles East of Aberdeen
Operates in water depth of 92m
236m long
Accommodates up to 80 personnel
Weighs 99,800 tonnes 19
Spar Platforms
Supported by a floating, hollow cylinder with extra weight in the
bottom
Mooring lines used to tether platform to seabed

90% of the structure is underwater giving good stability in deep water

Used in depths of 3000m

Example: Genesis Spar


Platform
Located 150 miles South of New Orleans
Operates in water depths of 800m
Platform is held in place by a 14-point
mooring system
Each line is 80m long with a 135mm diameter
Hull was manufactured and transported in
two halves
Weighs 36000 tonnes
Flooding was used to upend the hull 20
Spar Design Example

Devil's Tower Truss spar platform developed for the Gulf of Mexico
586 feet in length and in 5,610 feet of water (deepest spar in the world at installation) 21
Offshore Structures
Topsides
Crane

Drilling
Derrick

Process
Helideck Area
Flare
Boom
Accommoda
tion
Modules Cellar
Lifebo Deck
Spider
ats
Deck

22
Offshore Structures below
LAT

Pump
Caissons
Jack Conductor Guide
et Frame
Riser
Conductor
(wells) Riser Clamp
Pile
Cluster
Subsea
Pipeline
Mud
Mat 23
Onshore Structures

Drilling rigs are built over land discovered to have oil and/or gas

Drilling rigs sizes and types vary greatly. Some are small and
mobile, others are large and powerful

Service rigs are used to complete wells and drilling rig is relocated
to another well. This allows for increased productivity and
efficiency.
24
Loadings
Typical load considerations for all structures (onshore and offshore):

Dead loads - The permanent loading caused by the structure

Live loads - A loading that is considered temporarily imposed to the structure

Environmental loads - Loads caused by environment i.e. wave, wind, ice etc.

Construction loads - Loads associated with the construction or installation of a structure

Accidental loads - Loads caused by unexpected events such as impact or explosion

Onshore structures are typically dominated by dead loads and live loads.
Offshore structures are typically dominated by environmental loads.

Environmental Loads that Commonly Affect Offshore Installations:

Wind, Wave, Current, Seabed movement

International codes of practice dictate that recurrence intervals for design events must be
considered. For example a 10 year, 100 year and 10,000 year wave event could be
considered when designing a platform .
25
Loadings
4
1 5

6 3

1. Dead & live


loads 2 7
2. Current load
3. Wave load
4. Wind load
5. Fire and blast Dead/live
load Accidental
6. Impact load
7. Dropped object Environmental
load
26
Loadings Waves
0 36 Wave Direction
0

9 27
0 0
18
0
Wave Phase Angle
(Degrees)
Waves are generated by the wind on the surface of
water
As the wave passes through the structure, the
applied loading varies depending on the phase angle
The air gap is the distance measured between the
topsides and the crest of the wave
A negative air gap occurs when the wave passes
onto the topsides and creates a wave in deck load

27
Loadings Wind
N
N
NW
Win E
d
+10m
Reference W E
Velocity
MSL S S
W E
S
Wind loads act above the Mean Sea Level
A wind interval of less than one minute is considered a gust
A wind interval longer than one minute is considered a sustained
wind
Winds with intervals of one hour are analysed with extreme waves
and current loads
Extreme wind speeds are analysed without regards to waves
The wind velocity reference point is given as +10m above the Mean28
Sea Level
Support Vessels &
Helicopters
Supply Boat
Take supplies to and from offshore
installations
Designed to withstand severe weather
Can also be used for towing, handling anchors
and providing fire fighting cover

Standby Boat
Designed to provide first aid facilities to
installations
Previous to the Piper Alpha incident converted
trawler boats were used as standby boats
Now specially made boats are constructed

Survey Boats
Used for gathering data on potential oil & gas 29
Support Vessels &
Helicopters
DSV (Diving Support Vessels)
Provides a stable platform for divers to carry
out operations
These can come in ship form or as a semi-
submersible
DSV in the picture to the left is the Uncle
John, regarded one of the most successful
DSV in operation

Helicopters
Primary method of transport from onshore to
offshore for personnel
Before helicopters, boat was the main
method of transporting personnel offshore
The Super Puma is the most common type
of helicopter found in North Sea operations
30
The History of Drilling
1840s: Drilling for oil began when oil was discovered seeping through ground fissures in
Pennsylvania.

Drilling was originally done for water wells and salt but this changed after people realised
the potential of oil.

Percussion drilling was used initially to crush rock:


Drill bit would be lifted and repeatedly dropped on the same spot and broken rock cleared by hand.
This process was continued until the reservoir was reached, usually resulting in a blow out.
This technique was only effective on land for reservoirs that were no more than 20m below the
surface.
Many people were killed and huge volumes of oil and gas were released to the atmosphere.

Late 1800s: oil and gas seeps were noticed in the sea off the coast of California and it was
theorised that there must be offshore oil fields.

Piers were built to reach points far offshore and rotary drilling was developed because
percussive drilling was impossible in water.

1896: The Summerland onshore field was discovered to extend offshore and became the
first offshore oilfield to be drilled.

Early 1900s: Biggest growth of offshore oil and gas drilling.


31
The History of Drilling
Summerland Oil Field, Santa
Barbara, California, 1896

Summerland Oil Field, Santa


Barbara, California, 2009

32
Cost of Drilling
Depends on: Does not include:

Daily rate of drilling. Risks of explosion.

Extra Services required to Leakages of oil.


drill the well.
Cost of clean-up.
Duration of drilling and the
well. Damage to companies
image.
Remoteness of location.

33
Utilities Required
Power Generation Drainage System

Diesel System Instrument Air and Inert Gas


System
Flare System
Fresh Water
Seawater System
Sewage
Cooling Medium System
Start-Up Operations
Firewater

Management of Wastes and


Sand Jetting and Separation
Emissions
System

34
The Drilling Process
Modern drilling uses a rotary drill bit to drill
through rock:
A derrick is setup connected to draw works with drill
lines
The drill lines connect a crown block to the derrick
and draw works which allow it to travel up and down
A hook connects a power swivel to the crown block

Power swivel transmits drilling mud through the


drill string to provide power to the drill bit at the
bottom of the string.

The drill string is a string of segments of pipe that


connect the drill bit to the derrick.

The drill bit grinds up the rock creating drill


cuttings.

The drilling mud transports these cuttings back to


the surface allowing constant drilling to occur. The
mud is then filtered using shale shakers to remove
cuttings and is used again.
35
Drill Rig Types
Jackup Rig

36
Drill Bits (1)
There are two main types of drill bits; Tricone and fixed cutter.

The first two-cone rotary drill bit was developed and patented by
Howard Hughes Snr. in 1909.
It revolutionised the industry by allowing wells to be drilled faster and
deeper.

In 1933 the Tricone drill bit was invented and patented by Hughes
company (now Baker Hughes oilfield services).
Patent lasted until 1951 when other companies were allowed to
develop there own.
Tricone Drill Bit:

37
Drill Bits (2)
The second bit developed was a fixed cutter bit which relies on
percussion and rotation of the drillstring.
Fixed cutter bits are typically made of polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC). The fixed cutter is the more commonly used bit because of
durability resulting in fewer bit change outs.

Different bits can be used for different rock formations:


Tricone drill bits are best suited for soft formations such as clay or
sandstone.
Fixed cutter drill bits are more suited to hard formations such as shale
and mudstones.
Fixed Cutter Drill
Bit:

38
Drill Pipe
Drill pipe is used to transmit drilling mud to the bit and
provide power for the drill bit.

A different type of heavy weight drill pipe is used at the


lower end of the drill string to protect the bit and the
bottom hole assembly, which contains well logging
equipment, from being damaged by a build up of hot drill
cuttings.

Drill pipe is typically manufactured in 31 foot lengths.


These pipe segments are usually screwed together in sets of 3 or 4
called a pipe stand.
This is performed prior to drilling to decrease the time between tripping
where new pipe segments will be added to the string.

39
Casing
Casing is a larger diameter drill pipe that is used for supporting the borehole and
is usually cemented in place. It also provides extra support for the surface
formation so that the borehole does not collapse whilst drilling.

Provides isolation for different zones of the well so that hydrocarbons will not
seep into upper formations and find a way to the surface.

Also provides support in the well bore should a blow out occur and will prevent
the surface formation from being blown out by the pressure from a reservoir.

Sizes are between 18 35 inches and the drill pipe will then be lowered through
providing a space between the casing wall and the drill pipe called the annulus.
This is where drill cuttings will rise.

Drill Pipe vs.


Casing

40
Deepwater Drilling
Deeper well higher pressure greater challenge in retrieving
hydrocarbons.

Deepwater is considered >150 metres water depth but can be up


to 3000 metres in some regions particularly Gulf of Mexico.

As companies ventured offshore, large hydrocarbon deposits were


found in more porous and permeable rock, therefore higher
pressure.

Problem with deepwater drilling is controlling pressures at such a


depth and this poses a danger in the form of blowouts as seen in
the Deepwater Horizon blow out in Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

Also important to avoid fracturing rock.

41
Drilling pressure has to be balanced.
Oil Wells
Oil well is the general term for boring through the Earths surface
with intent of finding and retrieving hydrocarbons.

The well provides a conduit for hydrocarbons to flow from the


reservoir to production and process facilities on the surface.

The life of a well consists of:


Planning
Drilling
Completion
Production
Abandonment

42
Types of Wells
Wells can produce:
Oil only
Oil and Gas
Gas only

Historically natural gas produced was of very low value so was typically
disposed of by flaring.

Natural gas can be used as fuel to power a platform process facilities or


injected to be used as gas lift to increase oil recovery.

With rising oil prices, gas is becoming a preferred source of power for
electricity and heating due to its abundance and relatively low price
compared with oil. It is a cleaner burning fuel compared with oil and coal.

There is new high demand for natural gas in the United States with a
boom in shale gas due to innovation in drilling technology.
43
Types of Wells
Classifying oil wells by their purpose:

Wildcat Wells Drilling with no known data of an area.

Exploration Wells Used to test an area for oil and gas accumulations.

Appraisal Wells Drilling wells to test flow rates and total volumes of hydrocarbons.

Production Wells Used for producing oil and gas.

Injection Wells Used for water or gas injection to increase recovery factor.

Disposal Wells Wells drilled to dispose of produced water, gas or waste that can
either not be disposed of overboard or shipped back to shore.

Satellite Wells Wells that are drilled and connected to a subsea manifold which
produce back to an original production platform. Used when the accumulation is far
from existing wells and is uneconomical to require its own platform.

44
Drilling Fluids
There are a number of different fluids used in drilling for
different reasons or scenarios that require them.

The main types of drilling fluids are:


Drilling Mud
Cement

Drilling fluids are mixtures of water and additives to change the


properties of the fluid.

Mud is a mixture of water, bentonite and barite (minerals of


aluminium and iron).

Cement is a mixture of water and chalk or calcium based mineral.

45
Drilling Mud - Function
There are numerous functions for drilling mud:
Primarily used to maintain hydrostatic pressure on the reservoir to prevent the
formation pressure causing a blowout whilst drilling.
Also helps to support the wellbore and prevent collapse.

Secondary functions include:


Circulating cuttings out of the wellbore.
Providing a filter cake against permeable formations that would block the reservoir.
Cooling and lubrication of the drill bit.
Hold cuttings in suspension whilst drilling is halted.
Providing hydraulic power to the drill bit.
Enable formation evaluation.
Reduce tensile and torsional loads on the derrick and drill stem.

Two main types of mud that can be used; water-based and oil-based.
Water is typically used but oil performs better for drilling certain formations such
as high temperature, high pressure reservoirs.
Oil-based mud is a lot more expensive to make and far more harmful to the
environment.
46
Drilling Mud - Properties
The mud is mixed by a mud logger and mud engineer that determine which
properties are required for a mud.

These properties can change as the well deepens, such as higher density to maintain
hydrostatic pressure as the drill bit nears the reservoir and more viscosity to maintain
circulation of drill cuttings.

Major properties that affect the muds functions are:


Mud weight
Viscosity
Gel strength
Mud chemistry

These properties are altered by adding mud additives.

Each of the major properties will be affected by adding the following:


Mud weight - Adding a weighting agent such as bentonite (barium sulphate)
Viscosity - Adding clay or polymers
Gel strength - Adding barite (aluminium phyllosilicate)
Mud chemistry - This can be altered by adding sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
47
Cement
Cement is another common drilling fluid.
Primarily used for setting casing in place, isolating cased off zones in the
wellbore and protecting casing from corrosion.

Cement can also be used for plugging a well whilst changing out a drill bit
to prevent blowouts or well abandonment.

There are 4 main types of cement mix used:


C3S Tricalcium Silicate (Ca.O)3.Si.O2
C2S Dicalcium Silicate (Ca.O)2.Si.O2
C3A Tricalcium Aluminate (Ca.O)3.Al2.O3
C4AF Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (Ca.O)4.Al2.O3.Fe3.O2

These different cement mixes are used for specific functions:


C3S - Early reaction and begins to set fast which provides strength quickly.
C2S - Slow to develop but provides long term strength.
C3A - Fastest to set but is highly exothermic. Provides early strength but alters
structure late in life.
C4AF - Provides long term strength and protection against scaling. 48
Fluid Pumping
Pumping is critical to drilling as mud
must be delivered to the drill bit.

If pumping stops then drilling must


be halted because drill cuttings
cannot be removed from the hole.

Heavy duty slurry pumps are used


to deliver the mud down the drill
string to the wellbore.

Once the mud has circulated back


up to the surface shale shakers
separate cuttings from mud using
vibration.

Cuttings are observed for


information on the reservoir and will
give an indication as to how close
the reservoir is.

Drilling mud is very expensive to


make and must be recycled.
49
Directional Drilling
Obtains information, hits targets and
stimulates reservoirs that vertical drilling
cannot.

Important for shale wells to artificially induce


permeability.

Slower and more expensive.

The wells can be drilled from much further


away, some horizontal wells have been
drilled from 20+ kilometres away.
Horizontal wells can also
reach reservoirs that would be
Wellheads can be grouped together to
impossible to drill vertically
reduce land area required.
such as in the middle of a
built up area; the well can be
Drilling a relief well to help prevent blowout. drilled horizontally from far
away (example above).
50
Kicks
A kick is a well control problem in which the pressure found within the
drilled rock is higher than the mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the
borehole or rock face.

The greater formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into
the wellbore:
This forced fluid flow is called a kick.

An underbalance in mud can cause fluids to flow from the reservoir into the
wellbore.

If a kick isnt controlled, it can develop into a blow out.

Warning signs and possible kick indicators observed at the surface:


Flow rate increase.
Mud pit volume increase.
Flowing well with pumps off.
Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase.
Decrease in the weight of the drill string.
51
Controlling a Kick
There are many methods used for controlling a kick:
Drillers method
Weight and Wait
Reverse Circulation
Bullheading
Volumetric method

All the methods are similar but vary slightly in their approach, some aim
to eliminate a kick instantly then restart mud circulation when the well
is back under control and others slowly bring the well under control
without stopping circulation.

Different situations require specific methods, and all have advantages


and disadvantages.

The two most common methods used are the Drillers Method and the
Weight and Wait method.
52
Drillers Method
The Drillers method uses two circulations of mud to control a kick.

The first circulation balances the shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) and shut-in casing
pressure (SICP). The original mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP. This ensures the
pressure in the drill pipe and the annulus are the same to maintain circulation.

The second circulation uses kill mud which is heavier to eliminate the kick by increasing
hydrostatic pressure. The casing pressure is bled off whilst the kill mud is delivered to
the drill bit to ensure that circulation can continue when it rises up the annulus without
a rise in pressure from mud already in the annulus.

The kill mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP = 0 kpa/psi which will indicate that the kick
has been eliminated.

The advantages of the Drillers method is that fewer calculations are required and
circulation can begin immediately, circulation is also maintained.

The disadvantages are that a kick has more time to develop due to the original mud
being circulated which means hydrostatic pressure is less than the reservoir pressure.
The difference in pressures mean that there is more stress and strain at the bottom of
the drill string which can lead to ballooning/bursting or collapsing the drill string.
53
Weight and Wait Method
The Weight and Wait method only uses one circulation.

When a kick is detected the well is shut in and the required kill mud weight
is calculated.

The SICP is bled off while the kill mud is circulated in. The mud is circulated
until it reaches the surface through the annulus and if SICP = SIDPP = 0
then the kick has been eliminated.

The advantages are that a kick has no time to develop due to shutting in
the well so there is no chance of it creating a blowout. High pump pressures
arent required to circulate out the kick before circulating in the kill mud.

The disadvantages are that gas from the kick can migrate upwards through
the annulus during the shut-in, complicating restart procedures. There are
more calculations to do and if the wrong mud weight is calculated the
procedure must be repeated.

54
Blowouts
Kicks develop into blowouts if no action is taken and /or safety measures are
ineffective.

Uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons after pressure control systems have failed.

A spark during a blowout can lead to oil or gas fire.

Formation fluids flow up the wellbore and annulus during a kick but reach the
surface during a blowout.

Blowout preventers (BOPs) are used to isolate the well while hydrostatic balance
is regained.

Once all contaminant has been circulated out, the casing pressure should have
reached zero.

Blowouts can occur during well testing, well completion, production or work over
activities.

55
Blow Out Preventers

BOP Ram
Types:

a Blind ram

b Pipe ram BP Macondo


Blowout
c Shear
ram

The annular preventer and rams typically


appear stacked on top of each other with
the annular preventer on top with the 3
different rams beneath as seen in the
picture on the right. 56
Completions
Once the well is drilled and cased, it has to be completed which
enables oil or gas production.

Acids and fracturing fluids may be pumped into the well to fracture,
clean, prepare and stimulate the reservoir.

Area above the reservoir section is packed off inside the casing and
connected to the surface via a smaller diameter pipe called tubing.

This provides a redundant barrier to leaks as well as allowing


damaged sections to be replaced.

The smaller area of the tubing produces reservoir fluids at a higher


velocity, minimising liquid fall back and creating additional back
pressure.

57
Production Stage
Once the well has been drilled the top is usually fitted with a
christmas tree.

A christmas tree is a collection of valves that regulate pressures,


control flows and allow access to the wellbore.

The outlet valve of a christmas tree can be connected to a


distribution network of pipelines and tanks.

Christmas trees on their own can produce the well but sometimes
artificial drive methods are required.

The well will flow as long as the pressure in the reservoir is greater
than the pressure at the wellhead.

58
Wellhead
Wellhead sits on top of the well that leads
to the reservoir:
Provides the structural and pressure-
containing interface for the drilling and
production equipment
Allows easy access to the well

A Christmas tree is mounted on top of the


wellhead

Surface wellheads are onshore or on


the deck of an offshore installation

Subsea wellheads are underwater


Wellhead and are used in subsea production
systems
59
Christmas Tree
Primary production device but also
Swab
Wing large role in safety.
Valve
Valves Sits on top of the wellhead.
Valves which regulate flow and isolate
tree from well.
Consists of:
Lower master gate valve (LMGV).
Upper master gate valve (UMGV).
Wing valves (PWV and KWV).
UMGV
Swab Valve.
LMGV

60
Manifolds

Surface Subsea
Manifold Manifold
An assembly of pipes, valves and fittings by which fluid from one or
more sources is selectively directed to various process systems
Connect wells to export pipelines and risers
Merge flow from several wells and transfer them to flowlines
Manage the distribution of injected water, gas and chemicals
Onshore the manifold creates efficient reservoir utilisation by splitting
the flow from pipes into gas, oil, water etc.
Offshore, dry completion wells feed into production manifolds whereas
subsea production systems feed into production risers
61
Subsea Production Systems
Wells located on sea floor rather than the
surface

Petroleum extracted from seabed then tied-


back to pre-existing offshore or onshore
facility

Current horizontal distance possible from well


to facility is 250km

These systems cannot drill, they can only


perform extraction

Allows one platform to service many wells over


a large area

Smaller, less economically viable reservoirs


becoming more attractive due to lower costs

Used at depths of >500m


62
Subsea Pipelines

Typically anchored to seabed or buried in trenches for protection


against corrosion and sea currents
Some have a coating of concrete to reduce buoyancy and increase
protection
Vertical pipelines are called risers. These transport drilling tools,
power lines, dredge pipes and cold water in addition to oil & gas
Worlds deepest gas pipeline being developed. When finished it will
be 2900m underwater
Costly to implement so emphasis is put on getting it right the first
time around
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64
Transporting Oil & Gas - Pipelines
Flowlines & Gathering Lines
Travel short distances
Transports oil and/or gas to
processing facilities
Small diameter (from 50 305mm)

Feeder Lines
Transports processed oil and/or gas
to transmission lines Product Lines
Up to 508mm diameter Carry refined petroleum products from
refinery to distribution centre
Transmission Lines
Travel long distances Distribution Lines
Crude oil delivered to refineries or Enable local distribution from a
storage transmission system
Natural gas delivered to industry or Low pressure pipes
distribution system Can be large but majority are less
Large diameter (can be over 1m) than 152mm in diameter
65
Transporting Oil & Gas
Tankers
Tankers:

Developed after a need for mass distribution in WWII

Crude tankers carry unrefined oil from platform to refinery and range from 5000
to 450,000 metric tons

Product tankers carry refined oil from refinery to market and range from 5000 to
80,000 metric tons

Tanker Incidents - Explosions led to the introduction of inert gas systems


Norwegian VLCC Kong Haakon
VII - 1969

Shell Oil Marpessa - 66


Transporting Oil & Gas
Tankers
Oil Tanker Classification:

Product Carriers VLCCs (Very Large Crude Carriers)


26-50,000 metric tons 150-299,000 metric tons
Long haul operations
MCCs (Medium Crude Smaller size to ULCCs allows greater
Carriers) flexibility for discharging
70-150,000 metric tons
Short haul trips ULCCs (Ultra Large Crude Carriers)
They can load at most terminals
300-500,000 metric tons
worldwide
Mainly used for long haul operations
Require specially built terminals to
discharge cargo

67
Transporting Oil & Gas
Tankers
Gas Tankers (more commonly known as Gas Carriers or
LNG Carriers)

Fully pressurised carriers


Designed for pressures in the cargo tank over 11 bar
Primarily transport LPG
Semi-pressurised carriers
Designed for pressures in the cargo tank between 0.5 11 bar
Flexible but expensive and difficult to operate
Fully refrigerated carriers
Designed for pressures in the cargo tank below 0.7 bar
Can transport large volumes in proportion to weight

68
Transportation - Tanker vs. Pipeline
Tanker Export
Carries hydrocarbons at lower pressures than pipelines
Larger process areas creating extra weight on offshore
installations
Can easily transport hydrocarbons anywhere
Weather dependent

Pipelines
Smaller process area
Can transport hydrocarbons at higher pressures
Feasibility is dependent on installation location
Difficult to maintain

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Well Abandonment
The life of a well is shortened when the economic limit is raised.

When the economic limit is reached the well becomes a liability


and is abandoned.

At this limit there may still be a significant amount of oil in the


reservoir, so it may be temporarily abandoned.

Wells would be temporarily abandoned in the hope that the


market would change.

Lease provisions, governmental regulations, liability and tax can


cause abandonment.

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Asset Decommissioning
Decommissioning is the final stage in a platforms life and is
regulated by the Department of Energy and Climate Change using
legislation under the Petroleum Act 1998 (for UK oilfield
developments).

All wells must be plugged using kill mud and cement to ensure
there is no seepage after abandonment.

Drill cuttings must be disposed of and any dumped during the


initial drilling of the well must be recovered and removed.

Pipelines must be sealed and buried or bundles must be collected


and removed.

Topsides and jackets must be removed up to 60 metres below the


surface.
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Artificial Reefs
Abandoned oil rigs can
become home to ocean
creatures after use by being
submerged.

Minerals Management
Service requires rig removal
within a year after
abandonment therefore
turning into artificial reefs
saves costs and time.

72
Useful Websites and References
(Infrastructure)
1. Offshore Geotechnical Engineering E.T. Richard Dean
2. Offshore Engineering Angus Mathers
3. ABB Oil and Gas Production Handbook
4. Subsea Engineering Handbook Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
5. Subsea Pipelines and Risers Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
6. Dynamics of Offshore Structuers James F. Wilson
7. From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker Andrew G. Spyrou
8. http://www.rigzone.com
9. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects
10. http://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas-overview/transporting-oil-and-natural-gas/oil-tankers/~/media/Files/Oil-and-Natural-
Gas/Tankers/Tankers-LoRes.pdf
11. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/may2011/2011-05-18-091.html
12. http://s08.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/usa/downloads/alaska/os101-ch3.pdf
13. http://www.maerskdrilling.com/Documents/PDF/Drillingrigs/Specific-Rigs/heydar_aliyev.pdf
14. http://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ships/8765565/vessel:HEYDAR_ALIYEV
15. http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/extraction-offshore/
16. http://www.maersk-fpsos.com/Documents/Factsheet_Curlew_web.pdf
17. http://www.politico.com/blogs/jonathanmartin/0808/McCain_finally_gets_to_oil_rig.html
18. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum
19. http://ecokita.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/oil-field-1-web.jpg
20. http://completioninfo.com/christmas_tree.html.html
21. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
22. http://www.mtcltd-blog.com/gallery/offshore-onshore-package/
23. http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/subsea_trees_manifolds_and_connection_systems/Cluster_Manifolds.jsp
24. http://www2.emersonprocess.com/SiteCollectionImages/News%20Images/SubseaGraphic_HiRes.jpg
25. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html
26. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/oilandgaspipelines.pdf
27. http://www.cepa.com/about-pipelines/types-of-pipelines/natural-gas-pipelines
28. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/thestructuralintegrityofoilandgastransmissionpipelines.pdf
29. http://www.technip.com/en/press/technip-lay-world%E2%80%99s-deepest-gas-pipeline-shell-gulf-mexico

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Useful Websites and
1.
References (Drilling)
http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/DEEPWATER_ReporttothePresident_FINAL.pdf
2. http://www.geomore.com/oil-and-gas-traps/
3. http://petrochase.com/blog/how-does-an-oil-formation-take-place/
4. http://www.encapgroup.com/drilling/
5. http://www.epicwelldrilling.com/well-diagram/
6. http://www.petroleum-machine.com.p022_10_1.html
7. http://www.offshore-technology.com/features/featuredisused-oil-rigs-living-reefs-pictures
8. http://www.stockopedia.co.uk/content/independant-resourses-hit-by-second-well-disappointment-in-tunisia-49150/
9. http://www.offshoreenergytoday.com/conocophillips-hires-essar-wildcat-rig-for-drilling-offshore-indonesia/
10. http://www.premier-oil.com/premieroil/glossary
11. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms.aspx?LookIn=term%20name&filter=kick
12. http://petrowiki.org/Kicks
13. http://www.lloyds.com/news-and-insight/news-and-feactures/market-news/industry-news-news-2013/piper-alpha-after-the-fire
14. http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts/natural-sources.htm
15. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/07/100722-bp-gulf-oil-seeps-leaks-science-environment-nation/
16. http://www.manaspetroleum,com/s/Kyrgy.asp?ReportID=175759,175764
17. http://geology.com/articles/horizontal-drilling/
18. http://money.cnn.com/2008/10/07/smallbusiness/horizonal_well.fsb/
19. http://offshore-technology.com/features/feature1033
20. http://www.3datdepth.com/applications-2/
21. http://www.woodgroup.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/news-tech-articles/2007-05_DevelopRightConceptOffshore_Mustang.pdf
22. http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/production.htm
23. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/elgin/elgin5.html
24. http://aoghs.org/offshore-technology-history/offshore-oil-history/
25. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/platform-spar.htm
26. http://cenvironment.blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/seven-types-of-offshore-oil-production.html
27. http://www.greenworldtrust.org.uk/Science/Scientific/abiotic.htm
28. http://anjungsainssmkss.wordpress.com/2012/10/24/hydrocarbons/
29. http://www.sjvgeology.org/oil/exploration.html
30. http://blogs.ft.com/energy-source/2011/03/24/reasons-behind-failure-of-the-blowout-preventer-in-the-macondo-well/#axzz2bq0Q8zRz
74

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