Biomass role in Energy consumption

Figure 4-1: Biomass Role in U.S. Energy Consumption

Figure 4-2: Photosynthesis
Figure 4-3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions
There are significant advantages as well as
concerns raised when biomass is harvested as
a fuel source. Advantages include:
Biomass is renewable. Properly managed, new
fuel sources can be planted to replace those that
are harvested.
It is virtually carbon neutral. The crop planted to
replace the crop converted to fuel (ethanol in this
example) will in theory absorb the greenhouse
gas emissions generated by burning the biofuel.

(continued)
There are significant advantages as well as
concerns raised when biomass is harvested as
a fuel source. Advantages include: (continued)
Biomass is relatively inexpensive. Biofuels can
be manufactured at costs comparable to fossil
fuel sources.
It reduces dependency on non-renewable
imported oil and gas.

Biomass supports the growth of agriculture,

forestry and other rural economic development.

(continued)
There are significant advantages as well as
concerns raised when biomass is harvested as
a fuel source. Advantages include: (continued)
It helps to stabilize commodity prices by
providing a consistent and large demand source.
Biofuels are non-toxic and biodegradable.
Often no modifications to conventional internal
combustion engines are required to use biofuels.

It takes advantage of wasted potential energy by

harvesting waste products that otherwise would
simply end up in a landfill.
Figure 4-4: The Biofuel Carbon Cycle
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include:
Food versus Fuel. There is a concern that if the
growing of biofuels proves more lucrative than
the growing of food, farmers will convert their
land to producing fuel and food production will
decline. It is feared that this will lead to massive
food shortages and higher prices. In 2008, over a
six-month period of time, the price of corn
increased 67% largely due to a perception that
ethanol production would consume a significant
amount of the corn production.
Berkley Perspective
(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Not enough biomass. There are concerns that there
simply is not enough biomass on the planet to meet
current and anticipated energy demands. A 2003
study found that it would require 22 percent of all the
plant matter grown each year worldwide to supply
biofuel to meet the needs of current energy demands
(this is roughly twice what is currently utilized to
supply the agricultural needs of the planet). For
example, if ALL the corn produced in the U.S. was
converted to ethanol, it would only supply 10% of the
energy currently supplied by gasoline. Generator
Spirulina Algae. At Home (continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Not carbon neutral. Depending on the crop used in the
biofuel conversion, the process may not be carbon neutral
as it often takes a significant amount of fossil fuels to grow
the crop. Studies in the UK have found that biofuels in
their current form save only about 50-60% of the carbon
emissions as compared to burning fossil fuels. This is
significant, but not the 100% claimed by many proponents
of biofuels. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has found that when land use conversion is factored
into the production of ethanol (forests, for example, cut
down to plant corn) - using ethanol actually INCREASES
greenhouse gas emissions by 5% over a 30-year period of
time.
(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Fear of impact. There is a fear that if a significant
portion of the agricultural land is dedicated to
crops to support biofuels, biodiversity will suffer
(for example, rain forests may be cut down to
support biofuel plantations.) Deforestation
currently accounts for about a fifth of the worlds
greenhouse-gas emissions, according to
Greenpeace.

(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Soil Erosion. Intensive land management for
increased crop yields has resulted in significant
soil erosion. The Iowa Natural Resources
Inventory has found that land used to produce
crops for ethanol loses about 4.9 tons of soil per
acre. This is the equivalent of 21 pounds of soil
for every gallon of fuel (2.5 kilograms per liter).
Proper Cropping for conservation

(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Airborne Pollution. The burning of biomass
releases a large number of airborne particulates.
This can be a major health concern, especially in
developing nations where biomass is a major
source of fuel for cooking and heating.
What is Black Carbon?
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include:

20 in 10: In 2007 U.S. President George W.

Bush announced an initiative targeting a
20% reduction in fossil fuel consumption
within 10 years (2017) primarily through
the use of biofuels.

(continued)
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include: (continued)

25 x 25: A non-partisan lobbying effort

(promoted primarily by agricultural and
forestry industry interests) began in 2004 to
promote a national policy resulting in 25% of
all fuel consumption in the U.S. obtained from
managed agricultural and forestry sources by
the year 2025.

(continued)
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include: (continued)

The Biomass Technical Advisory Committee:

A committee established by the U.S. Congress
to determine the future direction of federal
biomass funding. A report published in 2005
envisioned a domestic energy market where
30% of energy consumption was supplied
from biomass.
Figure 4-5: Annual Biomass Production Targets
In order to achieve U.S. government projected
goals, however, a number of assumptions were
made. These include:
Yields per acre for corn, wheat and other small
grains will increase by more than 50% over the
coming years
The technology for recovering crop residue
(materials left behind when harvesting)
improves to become 75% efficient (currently
less than 40% efficient)

(continued)
In order to achieve U.S. government projected
goals, however, a number of assumptions were
made. These include: (continued)
All cropland (100%) will be managed using
no-till methods (a process of harvesting where
crop residue is left on the surface of the soil - no
plowing - to ensure consistent soil moisture and
temperature for future planting), up from about
13% today
55 million acres of cropland and pasture will be
converted to growing perennial biomass crops
(such as switchgrass, willow and other woody
materials)
(continued)
In order to achieve U.S. government projected
goals, however, a number of assumptions were
made. These include: (continued)
No significant increase or reduction in farming
acreage (from current agricultural inventories
of 455 million acres to 448 million acres in 2030)

All manure except that which is applied on the

farm where it is produced for soil embellishment
will be used as biomass

All available residuals (zero waste) will be used

as biomass
Figure 4-6: Potential Sources for Biomass
Anticipated sources for biomass include:

Logging and other timber residues (branches,

stumps, etc.) through forest management
(Silviculture)
Fuel treatment (removing excess brush and trees
to manage forests in an effort to avoid damaging
forest fires)
Firewood (for wood stoves, furnaces, etc.)
Urban wood residues (such as tree trimmings,
wood from demolished homes, etc.)

(continued)
 Anticipated sources for biomass
include: (continued)
Pulp residues (black liquors from paper processing
contain chemicals and unprocessed pulp.
Technology to gasify these liquors may provide a
more efficient energy source than simply burning
them.)

Bark, slabs and sawdust from wood processing

Grains (factoring in increased yields)
Perennial crops such as switchgrass, poplar and
willow
(continued)
Anticipated sources for biomass
include: (continued)
Crop residues (corn stalks, etc)
Process residues (waste material collected when
plant material is used in the production cycle).
These include manure from animals, municipal
waste, industrial waste (for example, about 20%
of the corn kernel is wasted when corn is
converted to ethanol), and others.
Achieving U.S. government projected targets
envisions a significant increase in the harvesting
of residual crop materials. However, these
materials serve some very useful purposes when
left in the field. They:

Reduce soil erosion

Reduce soil compaction
Increase the organic content of the soil
Increase moisture holding capacity of the soil

(continued)
Achieving U.S. government projected targets
envisions a significant increase in the harvesting
of residual crop materials. However, these
materials serve some very useful purposes when
left in the field. They: (continued)

Reduce the need for pesticides and fertilizers

Provide food and habitat for wildlife,
including beneficial soil enhancing organisms
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include:
Accessibility to forests. Much of the available
biomass contained within forests is simply
not accessible (no roads, steep terrain, etc).
Public resentment. If large swaths of timber
were harvested to provide energy, public
sentiment may quickly turn against biomass
as an alternative fuel source.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Transportation costs. Moving timber can cost

between $.20-.60 per mile per ton. Unless
conversion facilities are located close to the
source, this transportation cost will add
significantly to the cost of utilizing biofuels
as an energy source.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Labor availability. A significant portion of the

biomass from woodlands is obtained through
reducing the fuel load to prevent forest fires.
This requires skilled forestry workers in
numbers that are likely not available.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Federal policy. Forest management is a long-

term process. Government policies currently
do not provide significant incentives for
programs such as tree planting and
woodlands management (less than of one
percent of agricultural payments to farmers).

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Contamination of materials. Recovered wood

products (from urban residue and industrial
residue) can add significantly to the cost of
processing. These materials often contain
non-biomass components (plastics, asbestos,
oil paints, etc) that must be cleaned or
removed during processing.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Changing farming habits. Utilizing crop

residues, no-till farming, and conversion to
perennials require significant changes in the
culture of farming. These farming practices
are slow to change unless there are
significant financial incentives.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Damage to the soil. Removing residuals from

the soil will likely lead to lower soil quality
(need for additional fertilizers) as well as
increased soil erosion. Raising corn, for
instance, erodes the soil about 12 times faster
than it can naturally be replenished.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Water. Increasing production will almost

certainly require additional water resources
- many of which are already unreliable and
stretched to capacity. Again, the production
of corn depletes ground water 25% faster
(on average) than it can be recharged.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Crop Storage. Farming is seasonal, with

periods of plenty and periods of low
production. During times when harvests are
good, there may be need for significant
storage facilities to handle the excess
production. These infrastructure needs add
cost and complexity to the system.

(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)

Concentration of Resources. Many fear that

biofuel production will increasingly
concentrate control of food resources and
prices within large agri-business producers
and processors (accelerating the trend away
from small family farm production).
In 2005 a group of about 100 non-profit non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) wrote to
the United Nations warning that increased use
of biofuels will:
Marginalize small-scale agriculture and lead
to the widespread conversion of forests and
other sensitive ecosystems

Lead to very high food prices and cause

hunger, malnutrition and impoverishment
amongst the poorest sectors of society

(continued)
In 2005 a group of about 100 non-profit non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) wrote to
the United Nations warning that increased use
of biofuels will: (continued)
Lead to rural unemployment and depopulation
Destroy the traditions, cultures, languages and
spiritual values of indigenous peoples and rural
communities
Lead to a more extensive use of agro-chemicals,
which will affect human health and sensitive
ecosystems

(continued)
In 2005 a group of about 100 non-profit non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) wrote to
the United Nations warning that increased use
of biofuels will: (continued)
Lead to the destruction of watersheds and the
pollution of rivers, lakes and streams
Cause droughts and other local and regional
climatic extremes (due to deforestation)

Put the food system at risk through the

extensive use of genetically modified organisms
(in an effort to boost crop production).
Initiatives such as the 25 x 25 publish
a list of goals that are incorporated into
biomass proposals to address concerns
such as:
Access: All producers, large and small must
have access to the biomass marketplace
Air Quality: Use of biomass must improve air
quality, not damage it. Use of biomass must
also result in a net decrease in greenhouse gas
emissions.

(continued)
Initiatives such as the 25 x 25 publish
a list of goals that are incorporated into
biomass proposals to address concerns
such as: (continued)
Biodiversity: Native, rare and threatened plant
and animal species must be protected.
Invasive and Non-Native Species: Invasive
species must not be introduced in an effort to
increase biomass yields.

(continued)
Initiatives such as the 25 x 25 publish
a list of goals that are incorporated into
biomass proposals to address concerns
such as: (continued)
Soil Quality: Biomass production should seek to
enhance soil quality and avoid erosion.
Water Quality and Quantity: Production of
biomass should not adversely impact available
water resources or water quality.
There exist a number of alternative sources that
hold promise in producing significant quantities
of fuel. These include:

Municipal waste
Food and crop waste
Animal waste
Algae
Switchgrass
Figure 4-7: Inexpensive Biodigestor
Figure 4-8: Mature Switchgrass
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include:
Combustion: Biomass can simply be burned to
generate heat and/or electricity. Since the dawn
of time, wood has been used as a primary heat
source. Today about 3% of the U.S. electrical
energy is obtained through the burning of
wood, wood waste and municipal waste.

(continued)
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include: (continued)
Gasification: Biomass can be heated to form a
synthetic gas call Syngas. Syngas can then be
used to generate electricity or can be converted
into fuels such as ethanol, methanol or
hydrogen.

(continued)
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include: (continued)
Fermentation and Biodigestion: The sugars
contained within plant material can be broken
down by yeast to produce carbon dioxide and
alcohol. This process is known as Fermentation
and is the basis for ethanol production. Similarly,
the organic material in biomass can also break
down to form methane and carbon dioxide. This
process (known as biodigestion), as well as
fermentation, are both anaerobic processes
(taking place in oxygen-free environments).
Figure 4-9: Pellet Stove
Advocates of the Woodchip Boiler technology point to
the following advantages of woodchips:

The price of woodchips is relatively stable or

they can often be obtained for free from wood
trimming activities (such as clearing for
power lines).
The energy required to create wood chips is a
fraction of that required to produce wood
pellets.
Green chips can be used, eliminating the need
to dry or season wood.

(continued)
Advocates of the Woodchip Boiler technology point to
the following advantages of woodchips: (continued)

Chips can be transported by dump truck

(reducing handling and cost) and are typically
produced from local sources.

Wood chips can be produced from waste

material or brush.
Figure 4-10: Reliance on Biomass in Developing Nations
Biopower system technologies include:

Direct-firing
Co-firing
Pyrolysis
Gasification (syngas)
Anaerobic digestion
Table 4-1:
Average Heat
Content from
Various Biomass
Sources
Table 4-2: Energy and Bulk Densities Characteristics
of Selected Materials
Figure 4-11: Wood-to-gas Converted Vehicle
The anaerobic digestion process generates three
main products:
Biogas - a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4)
Fiber - can be used as a nutrient-rich soil
conditioner

Liquor - can be used as liquid fertilizer

The two major anaerobic digestion process:

Mesophilic

Thermophilic
Officially recognized alternative fuels (by the
U.S. Government) include:
Methanol, ethanol and other alcohols
Blends of 85 % or more alcohol with gasoline
Domestically produced natural gas
Liquefied petroleum gas (propane)
Coal-derived liquid fuels
Hydrogen
Electricity
Biodiesel (B100)
Green Diesel (fuels other than alcohol derived
directly from biological materials)
Figure 4-12: Annual U.S. Ethanol Production
Alcohol fuels offer significant advantages over
gasoline. These advantages include:
Lower emissions: Ethanol contains oxygen,
making the combustion process within the engine
more efficient. As a result, the fuel burns cleaner
with less carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and
other greenhouse gases emitted.
Higher octane: Ethanol boosts the octane content
of the fuel mix (113 versus 87 for regular unleaded
gasoline) without toxic chemicals such as benzene,
toulene and xylene (which are often used for this
purpose).
(continued)
Alcohol fuels offer significant advantages over
gasoline. These advantages include: (continued)
Biodegradable: If accidentally spilled, ethanol will
naturally degrade, leaving no lasting
environmental impact.

Domestic supply: Supports a domestic agricultural

economy
Proven technology: The production of alcohol is a
time-tested technology and the resulting product
can be used in existing internal combustion
engines without significant modification.
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:

Food versus Fuel: In 2006, 17% of the U.S. corn

crop was used in the production of ethanol.
During that same year, the price of corn shot up
66%, largely based on increasing ethanol
production demands. Producing a significant
portion of domestic fuel production from food
crops raises serious concerns. It is estimated that
the amount of corn necessary to produce enough
ethanol to fill an SUV one time will feed a person
for a year.

(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)

Available resources: Critics argue that there

simply is not enough suitable farmland to
produce the amount of grains necessary to
manufacture ethanol in the quantities required.
The amount of farmland in the U.S. has actually
declined during the past 50 years, as shown in
Figure 4-13.

(continued)
Figure 4-13: U.S. Cropland
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)

Production energy costs: Some scientists have

argued that it requires up to six times the
amount of fossil fuels to produce ethanol than
the energy contained within the final product.
Industry proponents counter that these estimates
are flawed and/or are based on older production
techniques.

(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)

Lower energy content: Ethanol contains less

energy for a given volume than does gasoline
(83,333 Btu per gallon versus 124,800 Btu). As
a result, vehicles will experience lower mileage
per gallon.

(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)

Distribution issues: Ethanol-blended fuels are

corrosive and tend to separate when transported
in pipelines. Therefore, ethanol blends cannot be
shipped by pipeline - adding significantly to
transportation costs. Additionally, grain
production is rural in nature. Grain-based fuels
will incur considerable costs moving the product
to population centers.

(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
Infrastructure: Higher ethanol blends (such as
E85) require custom pumps and storage tanks.
As a result, E85 is available at less than 1% of
gasoline retail stations.
Flex-fuel vehicles: In order to burn fuel blends
greater than 10% ethanol, vehicles must be
specially adapted. Flexible fuel vehicles can burn
blends up to 85% ethanol (E85). While numbers
are growing, E85 vehicles still represent a
minority of cars on the road.
Figure 4-14: Projected Biofuel Feedstocks
The Cellulosic Biofuel technology advantages
include:

Available resources: Cellulosic biofuel production

offers perhaps the only viable solution to large
production demands based on available resources.
Studies indicate that an efficient conversion
process could produce significant amounts of
biofuel from currently available waste materials
and perennial crops that can be produced on
marginally productive farmland.

(continued)
The Cellulosic Biofuel technology advantages
include: (continued)
No fertilizers and pesticides: A major energy input
in traditional biofuel production is the need for
fertilizers and pesticides in the production of
grains. Most of these fertilizers are fossil-fuel
based. Cellulosic materials require little or no
fertilizers or pesticides.
Lignin: Cellulosic biomass contains Lignin, a
natural fiber that can also serve as an energy-rich
fuel to run biofuel processing plants. These plants
might operate solely on the energy supplied by
this byproduct of production.
The Cellulosic Biofuel Technology disadvantages
include: (continued)
High cost: The cost of producing cellulosic ethanol
is much higher than costs associated with
traditional production methods. It is hoped that as
the technology matures, these costs will decline.
Biodiversity damage: Increased production
demands may lead to the introduction of invasive
species, and damage to biodiversity (diverse
environments converted to mono-crop
production).
 The Butanol advantages include:

Vehicle modifications: Butanol can be blended at

higher rates with gasoline without the need for
modifications to the vehicle. It is considered
substantial similar to gasoline and some
advocates claim it can be substituted up to 100%
as a total replacement to gasoline in unmodified
vehicles.

(continued)
The Butanol advantages include: (continued)

Transportation: Butanol does not break down

in pipelines, so it can be transported using
traditional methods, reducing costs.
Higher energy content: The energy contained
in butanol (110,000 Btu per gallon) is much
closer to gasoline (124,800 Btu per gallon)
than ethanol. So vehicle miles-per-gallon
would not be affected as dramatically.
 The Butanol disadvantages include:

Untested: This technology is not commercially

available, so all benefits are theoretical at the
present time.
Low yields: Industrial production of butanol
produces relatively low yields (in the 15-25%
range) of fuel.
Costs: As an experimental technology, butanol
production is very expensive when compared
to alternative fuels.
Figure 4-15: World Biodiesel Production
Table 4-3: Average Vegetable Oil Yields (per acre) from
Common Biodiesel Crops
 Biodiesel advantages include:

Compatibility: Biodiesel can be used in any modern

diesel engine without modification.
Cleaner burning: Biodiesel burns cleaner within a
diesel engine than does traditional diesel fuel and
possesses excellent lubricating properties - which
can extend the life of the engine.
Higher efficiency: Biodiesel burns more efficiently
than does Petrodiesel (diesel fuel from petroleum).
This results in lower emissions.

(continued)
Biodiesel advantages include: (continued)

Lower carbon emissions: As with all biofuels, the

energy from biodiesel comes from plant material,
the growing of which (theoretically) offsets the
carbon emissions from burning the product. The
U.S. Department of Energy estimates that biodiesel
emits 78% less carbon dioxide than does petrodiesel.
Odors: Diesel fuel and diesel engine emissions
produce an odor most find unpleasant. The burning
of biodiesel, however, produces a odor that smells
faintly of french fries if produced with recycled
cooking oil.
(continued)
Biodiesel advantages include: (continued)

Biodegradable: Like ethanol, biodiesel spills will

degrade naturally, leaving no lasting impact on the
environment.

Higher flash point: Biodiesel has a flash point twice

as high as petrodiesel, making it less likely to ignite
when the diesel vehicle is involved in an accident.

(continued)
Biodiesel advantages include: (continued)

Heating oil: Number 2 heating oil is essentially the

same a petrodiesel. Biodiesel blends up to 20%
(20% biodiesel) can be used in conventional fuel
oil furnaces (just as in diesel engines) with no
modification to the equipment. Residential
consumption of No. 2 heating oil in the U.S. was
6.6 billion gallons (25 billion liters) in 2001.
Blending heating oil (with 20% biodiesel) would
result in an additional 1.3 billion gallons (5 billion
liters) of biodiesel production.
 Biodiesel disadvantages include:

Lower energy: The energy content of biodiesel is lower

than that of traditional petrodiesel (121,000 Btu per
gallon as compared with 129,000 Btu per gallon). This
lower energy content results in about a 5% decrease in
power and fuel efficiency for biodiesel.

Bacteria: In warmer climates, bacteria may grow

within fuel tanks, clogging filters and fuel lines. This
occurs with both petrodiesel and biodiesel - although
tests indicate that adding biodiesel may accelerate
the problem. Fuel additives (biocides) are available
to eliminate this problem.
(continued)
Biodiesel disadvantages include: (continued)

Cold weather: Diesel engines are often difficult to

start in cold climates. This is because petrodiesel
forms paraffin wax crystals (clouds) when the
operating temperature falls below 20F (-7C).
When temperatures fall to 5F (-15C) the fuel can
reach a Pour Point, where it thickens and will not
flow through fuel lines. Biodiesel clouds and gels
at warmer temperatures than does petrodiesel.
Complicating matters, biodiesel made with
different oil feedstock will gel at different
temperatures.

(continued)
Biodiesel disadvantages include: (continued)

Dissolves rubber: In older vehicles, low quality

plastics and natural rubber can be dissolved by
biodiesel. This is likely not a problem on vehicles
produced after 1994.
A good solvent: Biodiesel is an excellent solvent that
will break down and loosen deposits left in the fuel
tank and fuel system by conventional diesel fuel.
This is a good thing (as they fuel system will be
cleaned) but is also a bad thing in that fuel filters
may become clogged with loosened material.
Straight Vegetable Oil disadvantages include:
Conversion: The burning of SVO requires
extensive conversion of the vehicle. Adapting a
vehicle (even for a do-it-yourself mechanic) will
cost between $300-$1,500.
Engine damage: SVO as a fuel requires switching
between fuel sources. Any miscalculations may
result in severe engine damage.
City driving: This system is not practical for short
trips, as the SVO does not reach temperatures
necessary to operate within the engine.

(continued)
Straight Vegetable Oil disadvantages include:
(continued)

Filters: SVO systems require the yellow grease

be extensively filtered, both before it is put in
the tank and after. Fuel filters typically must be
changed every 200-300 miles.
Approvals: SVO is not an EPA-approved fuel.
Use will void engine manufacturers warranties.

(continued)
Straight Vegetable Oil disadvantages include:
(continued)

Glycerine: The glycerine which is the waste

product in the production of biodiesel is still
present in SVO. As the fuel burns, the glycerine
may leave deposits within the system, reducing
the life of the engine.
New engine damage: Newer diesel engines
equipped with catalytic converters were never
intended to run on SVO and can very quickly
be damaged or poisoned.
 Green Diesel advantages include:

Better performance: Green diesel is essentially

identical to petrodiesel, but with a few advantages.
It has a lower cloud point, so cold weather
performance is actually better than traditional
diesel fuels (and much better than biodiesel). It also
has a higher energy content than biodiesel (123,000
Btu/gallon vs 121,000 Btu/gallon) but is still lower
than petrodiesel (129,00 Btu/gallon).

(continued)
Green Diesel advantages include: (continued)

All the advantages of biodiesel: As green diesel is

still derived from vegetable oils, it possesses all
the environmental and sustainable advantages of
biodiesel.

Oil Refinery technology: Hydro-processing

capacity is already incorporated into most oil
refineries. This capacity can be leveraged to
produce large quantities of green diesel in existing
refineries with only modest modifications.
 Green Diesel disadvantages include:

Experimental: Like so many green technologies,

this process has not been tested on a commercial
scale. Many of the cost and production estimates
are therefore theoretical.

Food vs. Fuel: This process still relies on oils

produced from food stock sources. Large-scale
production again raises the issues associated with
best-use concerns for food production and
distribution.
Biomass-to-Liquid advantages include:

Biofuel: As this fuel source is derived from

biomass rather than fossil fuels, it possesses all
the benefits of other biofuel sources (renewable,
low-emissions, etc).

Food vs. Fuel: As the fuel source is cellulosic in

nature, it does not utilize potential food as a
source of energy.
Biomass-to-Liquid disadvantages include:

Cost: BTL diesel costs about 10% more than

petrodiesel.

Lower energy and performance: Energy

content and performance issues are similar
to those of other biodiesel fuels.

Energy intensive: The U.S. Dept of Energy

has raised concerns that the F-T process is
quite energy intensive.
Future growth of the biomass fuel industry
(which includes biopower, biofuels and biogas
production) will be dependent upon a number
of factors:
Technical
Economic
Infrastructure
Resource Limitations
If resource limitations are to be overcome, the
industry must:

Significantly increase yields from existing

crops and farmland.

Find more land to convert to biomass

production.
Change the resource required, moving
from food stock to cellulosic biomass such
as perennials, waste, woodlands and
dedicated oilseed crops.
As the biomass energy market expands, changes
within the existing energy infrastructure will be
required.
Fuel pumps: There are currently only a small
number of pumps (currently less than 1%) in use
that are capable of dispensing high
concentration ethanol biofuel.
Flex Fuel Vehicles: While a significant number
of new vehicles are designed to run on fuels
containing a higher concentration of ethanol,
they still represent a very small portion of the
existing vehicle stock.

(continued)
As the biomass energy market expands, changes
within the existing energy infrastructure will be
required. (continued)
Pipelines: Currently ethanol cannot be shipped
via existing pipelines. A cost-effective
distribution system will need to be developed if
demand is to expand dramatically. Most U.S.
biodiesel production facilities are located in the
mid-west (where the grain crops are produced),
as shown in Figure 4-16. Most demand
(population centers) is located along the coasts.
Figure 4-16: U.S. Biofuel Production Facilities
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include:
Cost of fossil fuels: Low fossil fuel prices have
limited the expansion of alternative energy in
recent decades. When fossil fuel prices soar, so
does interest in biomass fuel. Inconsistent and
low fossil fuel prices will dampen the expansion
of biofuels.

(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Feedstock prices: 57% of the cost of ethanol
and 78% of the cost of biodiesel production is
the cost of feedstock. As fuel prices increase,
so do the costs of energy-intensive feedstock
(such as corn and soy). The result is that as
fossil fuel costs rise, the cost of producing
biofuels also rises. This lowers the economic
competitiveness of biofuels.

(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Saturation of co-product markets: The
economic viability of biofuel production is
dependent upon the sale of valuable co-
products (such as glycerine and germ-meal
animal feed). Large-scale production will
saturate these specialized markets, lowering
the price and therefore decreasing the
profitability of biofuel production.

(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Governmental tax policy: Government has attempted to
encourage the development of biofuels through tax policies
such as tax credits ($0.51/gallon for ethanol, $1.00/gallon
for biodiesel for virgin oil stocks) and import tariffs on
biofuels from other countries (for example, a $0.54/gal
tariff on ethanol imported from Brazil). However, these
policies are often inconsistent and typically short-term in
scope. The lack of a long-term consistent alternative fuels
public policy has tended to constrain biofuel production in
the United States.
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist:
Crop yield efficiencies. Growth projections
assume a tremendous increase in the yield
per acre of traditional food crops. It is
unclear, however, how these efficiencies are
to be achieved.

(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Cellulosic biofuels: Key to the expansion
of the biofuels industry is the converting
of cellulosic plant matter into fuel. These
processes are still experimental and it is
unclear if they will provide an
economically viable method of fuel
production.

(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Refining efficiencies. The refining of fossil
fuels is a mature and relatively efficient
industry. Biofuel refining technologies will
need to be improved if they are to
compete.

(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Distribution infrastructure. It remains unclear
whether the existing fuel infrastructure can
simply be modified to accept biofuels, or if
there will be the need for significant investment
in a new infrastructure to support an emerging
biofuel supply chain. The answer to this
question will greatly impact the cost and
availability of biofuels in the short term.
WARNING

THE WOOD GAS PRODUCTION

PROCESS PRODUCES
CARBON MONOXIDE WHICH
CAN BE FATAL IF INHALED.
Today, wood gas generator systems typically
incorporate four main components:

1 A wood generator to produce gas from

solid fuels.
2 A filter to remove soot and ash from the gas.
3 A cooling unit to condense tars and other
impurities from the gas.
4 A valve to mix the resulting wood gas with
air, and then direct this mixture into the
engines intake manifold.
Figure 4-17: Imbert Wood Gas Production System
There are three main designs for wood gas
generators, differing primarily on the relative
positions of the air inlet and the gas outlet
(although many variations to these basic
designs exist).

Updraft generators
Downdraft generators
Cross-draft generators
Figure 4-18: Updraft Wood Gas Generator
The advantages of updraft generators include:

Ease of use: This design is perhaps the simplest

to construct and operate.
High efficiency: Higher internal heat leads to a
more efficient burn process and results in a
cooler gas leaving the unit.

Flexible: Many types of biomass can be used

with this unit.
The disadvantages of updraft generators include:

Channeling: The top-feeding of biomass can

lead to the flow of fuel to the burning grate
being disrupted when some of the material
forms a bridge (or blockage). This results in
very high operating temperatures that can
lead to explosion. For this reason this design
requires an agitator or some other method to
shake the material to ensure it flows smoothly
to the burn area.
Figure 4-19: Downdraft Wood Gas Generator
The advantages of downdraft generators
include:

Cleaner fuel: This design results in a

wood gas that contains less impurities.
This in turn releases fewer potentially
damaging chemicals into the
atmosphere.
The disadvantages of downdraft generators
include:

More ash: While producing a cleaner

gas, downdraft generators produce
more waste ash that must be removed
from the unit.
Limited fuel sources: This design does
not work well with lighter density
biomass. Typically fuels must be
pelletized when used with this type of
wood gas generator.
Figure 4-20: Cross-Draft Wood Gas Generator
The advantages of cross-draft generators
include:

Small Scale: This design is very flexible

for small applications.
The disadvantages of cross-draft generators
include:

No Wood: This type of generator

requires a dry, low tar fuel source
such as charcoal. Wood and many
other biomass sources are not
suitable for this design.
There are significant limitations to the wood gas
system when compared with fossil fuels or other
biofuel sources:
Less power: Compared with natural gas, wood gas
contains only about 1/7th the energy by volume
(150 Btu/cubic foot versus 1,000 Btu/cubic feet).

Larger storage space: Given its lower energy

content, wood gas requires seven times the storage
capacity for the same amount of energy supplied
by natural gas.

(continued)
There are significant limitations to the wood gas
system when compared with fossil fuels or other
biofuel sources: (continued)
Weight: When incorporated in a vehicle, the
considerable weight of a wood gas generator
(and wood fuel) will dramatically reduce the
performance of the vehicle.

Refueling: It takes about 20 minutes to refuel the

generator (adding biomass, cleaning ash, etc).
Typically vehicles powered by wood gas must be
refueled every 125 miles (200 kilometers) or so.
The use of wood gas generators poses a
number of health and safety concerns.
These include:

Toxic Hazards
Fire Hazards
Risk of Explosion
Figure 4-21: Early Pot Still
Figure 4-22: Condensation Points within a Stills Column
Figure 4-23: Reflux Still
The major parts of the reflux still system
include:

The Boiler: Basically a stainless steel tank

(stainless steel will not corrode and does not add
impurities to the process) in which the fermented
mash (a mixture of grain or sugar, water and
yeast) is placed. This mash is then boiled,
beginning the distillation process.

(continued)
The major parts of the reflux still system
include: (continued)
The Column: Typically columns for small reflux
stills are constructed using copper tubing. They are
typically 2 4 feet in length (590 1200 mm). To
increase the surface area upon which the vapors
can condense, these columns are typically filled with
small heat-resistant items such as marbles, glass
beads or hollow ceramic cylinders (such as a
product called Raschig Rings). At the top of the
column, a small hole is drilled and a thermometer
attached so that temperature readings can be
monitored at the point furthest from the boiler.
(continued)
The major parts of the reflux still system
include: (continued)
The Cooling System: Early pot stills utilized a
coil of tubing to air-cool the vapors. Most
reflux stills incorporate a water-cooling system
to assist in lowering the temperatures within
the column. A simple cooling system circulates
water around a tube, lowering the temperature
to the point where ethanol vapor condenses
into liquid ethanol, as shown in Figure 4-24.
Figure 4-24: Cooling Tube
Fermentation is a series of anaerobic (without
oxygen gas present) processes that break
down sugar (glucose) into alcohol and carbon
dioxide. The resulting chemical equation
(in very basic terms):

C6H12O6 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2

(glucose) (alcohol) (carbon dioxide)
In commercial ethanol production facilities, the
process of unlocking the sugars from the grain
is done in one of two ways:
Dry Milling: This process is the least expensive
and produces higher yields of ethanol, but the
value of the byproducts is considerably less. In
this process, the grain is cleaned and ground
into a powder. It is then mixed with water,
cooked (with added enzymes), fermented and
then distilled.

(continued)
In commercial ethanol production facilities, the
process of unlocking the sugars from the grain
is done in one of two ways: (continued)
Wet Milling: The wet milling process is more elaborate
and expensive so the grain must be separated into its
component pieces before undergoing fermentation. The
grain is heated (for 24-48 hours) in a solution of water
and sulfur dioxide to loosen the husk and the germ. The
germ is then removed from the kernel and oil is
removed. The germ meal is then added to the husk fibers
to create a high-protein animal feed. Only the starch
portion of the grain is subjected to fermentation. The oil
and animal feed byproducts can add considerably to the
profitability of the production facility.
The distillation of ethanol creates a number of
potential safety hazards:
Explosion: Alcohol vapors are combustible
and can explode if they leak from the still and
come in contact with an open flame or spark.
The still apparatus should be tested for leaks
and should always be operated in a well-
vented location. Electric (rather than gas) heat
is often incorporated into these systems to
avoid the potential of escaping gas coming in
contact with an open flame.

(continued)
The distillation of ethanol creates a number of
potential safety hazards: (continued)
Fire: There is always a risk of fire when working
with heat and combustible materials. Alcohol
vapor as well as liquid ethanol will burn if
spilled. Extreme caution should be exercised.

Implosion: The distilling process takes place under

heat in a sealed container. Once the process is
complete and the apparatus is allowed to cool,
a vacuum may develop if air is not allowed to
enter the still (contracting air within the system
may implode the boiling tank as illustrated in
Figure 4-25 as it cools).
Figure 4-25: An Imploding Still
In the making of biodiesel, three products are
used. These include:

Vegetable oil or animal fats (petroleum

products such as used motor oil cannot
be used)
A catalyst (sodium hydroxide, also
known as lye)
Methanol
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include:

1 Heat the oil. If using used oil, it should

be heated to at least 240F (116C) to
boil off any water that might be
present. Then let it cool to about 130F
(54C). If new oil is used, preheat the oil
to 130F (54C).

(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

2 Mix the NaOH with the Methanol (creating

methoxide) in a sealed container and allow it
to mix thoroughly. This is an exothermic
reaction, so the mixture will generate heat as
the NaOH dissolves. The mix can be agitated
(shaken or stirred - speeding up the process).
It may take as little as 30 minutes or as much
as 12 hours for the NaOH to completely
dissolve.

(continued)
 Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

SAFETY WARNING
DO NOT BREATHE METHANOL OR METHOXIDE FUMES.
THEY ARE DANGEROUS AND CARTRIDGE RESPIRATORS
WILL NOT BLOCK METHANOL VAPORS.

3 Once the NaOH is completely dissolved, carefully

add the methoxide mix to the preheated vegetable
oil. These should be mixed in a sealed container.

SAFETY WARNING
AVOID METHOXIDE SPILLS. THIS MIX IS EXTREMELY
CAUSTIC TO SKIN AND SURFACES.
 Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

Shake or agitate the mixture for about 60 seconds.

After about 10 minutes, the mixture will begin to

separate into two distinct layers. The bottom layer
will be a dark liquid comprised of glycerine (actually
at this point it is about 50% pure glycerine, 40 %
methanol and about 10% soap and catalyst) and a
lighter top layer (about 80% of the mix) of biodiesel.
Let the mix settle completely for 12-24 hours.

(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

4 The biodiesel can now be decanted from

the mix (or the glycerine drained away
from the bottom).

(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

5 The biodiesel at this point will still contain

some glycerine, so the fuel will need to be
washed. This is done by mixing the biodiesel
with about half its volume of warm water (one
gallon of biodiesel is mixed with one-half gallon
of water). After mixing, the water will quickly
settle out, pulling glycerine with it (during the
first wash, the water will appear milky in
color). This process is repeated 3-5 times, each
time resulting in a more pure biodiesel fuel.

(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)

6 Finally the biodiesel will need to dry.

Venting the mix will allow any remaining
water to evaporate from the mix. When
the fuel is translucent (no longer cloudy),
it is ready to be used in any diesel engine.
Figure 4-26: Commercial Cone Bottom Biodiesel
Processor
The methanol-ladened glycerine can be:

Taken to a large biodiesel facility where

they will (hopefully) dispose of it for a fee.
Taken to a company that specializes in
biodiesel waste disposal.
Taken to a toxic waste dump facility.
Converted to methane in a biodigestor.
Mixed with 50% kerosene and used as a
solvent (makes a great engine cleaner).
Throughout the production of biodiesel process
there are hazards that must be understood and
avoided. These include:
Caustic Chemicals: The chemicals used as
catalyst (either lye or potassium oxide-KOH)
within the reaction are extremely caustic,
meaning they will burn skin and damage any
material they come in contact with. Protective
gloves and eye wear should be worn when
working with these chemicals.

(continued)
Throughout the production of biodiesel process
there are hazards that must be understood and
avoided. These include: (continued)
Methanol: Methanol is also caustic in additional to
being flammable. While it is safer to handle than
gasoline (according to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency) it can still ignite and its vapors can
explode if they come in contact with an open flame or
spark. It is also poisonous if consumed. Again, safety
equipment should be worn and biodiesel
manufacturing should take place in a well-ventilated
area away from ignition sources. Methanol should be
stored outdoors in sealed and approved containers.

(continued)
Throughout the production of biodiesel process
there are hazards that must be understood and
avoided. These include: (continued)
Spontaneous Combustion: Rags and other
materials often become soaked in biodiesel
(or the materials used to create biodiesel).
These can spontaneously combust and
should be stored in an approved and sealed
container.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1 How does biofuel differ from biomass?

REVIEW QUESTIONS

2 How does the modification of land

use affect the carbon cycle?
REVIEW QUESTIONS

3 List three advantages and three disadvantages

of utilizing biomass as an energy source.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

4 List four sources of biomass and the

advantages and disadvantages of each
source.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

5 Define the three major ways that

biomass is converted into energy.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

6 Explain two advantages of co-firing

biomass in traditional fossil fuel
electrical generating plants.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

7 Cite three advantages and three disadvantages

of ethanol as a fuel source.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

8 Why have advocates of biofuels pinned a

great deal of hope on the future of cellulosic
ethanol as compared with ethanol produced
from grain-based sources?
REVIEW QUESTIONS

9 Discuss the controversy surrounding the

energy required to produce ethanol and
why it is important to the future of ethanol
production.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

10 Explain the difference between distillation

and transesterification and which biofuels
are created using each process.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

11 List the limiting constraints (economic,

technical, infrastructure and resource) on
the expansion of biofuel as an energy source
and suggest how these constraints may be
overcome.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

12 When has the historic use of wood gas

generators been widespread and why?
REVIEW QUESTIONS

13 Discuss how the process of fermentation

takes place in grain and why it is important
in the manufacture of ethanol.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

14 What waste products are created in

the manufacture of biodiesel and
how are they best disposed of?
REVIEW QUESTIONS

15 What are the legal requirements

involved in small-scale production
of ethanol and biodiesel?
EXAM QUESTIONS

1 An advantage of using biomass as an

energy source is:

a. it prevents soil erosion.

b. it allows farmers to produce fuel
rather than food.
c. it promotes biodiversity.
d. it is non-toxic and biodegradable.
EXAM QUESTIONS

2 Currently the U.S. obtains what percent

of its energy from biomass sources?

a. less than 1%
b. about 3%
c. just under 12%
d. more than 25%
EXAM QUESTIONS

3 Which of the following groups would likely push

hardest to support legislation supportive of
biomass as an energy source?

a. The Farm Bureau

b. The American Petroleum Institute
c. The American Association of Retired Persons
d. The Rainforest Solutions Project
EXAM QUESTIONS

4 Which of the following is NOT a potential

source for energy from biomass?

a. algae
b. garbage
c. grass
d. beef
EXAM QUESTIONS

5 Converting wood to charcoal is an

example of:

a. Pyrolysis
b. Biodigestion
c. Co-Firing
d. Gasification
EXAM QUESTIONS

6 Which of the following is NOT an advantage of

using biodiesel to fuel vehicles?

a. Most newer diesel engines require no

modifications to run on biodiesel.
b. Biodiesel burns cleaner than regular diesel fuel.
c. Biodiesel smells better than regular diesel fuel.
d. Biodiesel contains more energy than regular
diesel fuel.
EXAM QUESTIONS

7 When air passes over a glowing bed of

embers in a wood gas engine, the following
gases are produced which can then be
burned in an internal combustion engine:

a. Oxygen and Methane

b. Methane and Helium
c. Methane and Hydrogen
d. Hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide
EXAM QUESTIONS

8 During the fermentation process, which of

the following is necessary to convert glucose
to carbon dioxide and alcohol?

a. temperatures in excess of 77F/25C

b. yeast
c. oxygen
d. a reflux still
EXAM QUESTIONS

9 The process involved in creating biodiesel

is known as:

a. distillation
b. triglyceride
c. transesterification
d. biodigestion
EXAM QUESTIONS

10 Which of the following is NOT a by-product of

creating biodiesel from vegetable oils?

a. methanol
b. glycerine
c. ethanol
d. wash-water