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(continued)
There are significant advantages as well as
concerns raised when biomass is harvested as
a fuel source. Advantages include: (continued)
Biomass is relatively inexpensive. Biofuels can
be manufactured at costs comparable to fossil
fuel sources.
It reduces dependency on non-renewable
imported oil and gas.
(continued)
There are significant advantages as well as
concerns raised when biomass is harvested as
a fuel source. Advantages include: (continued)
It helps to stabilize commodity prices by
providing a consistent and large demand source.
Biofuels are non-toxic and biodegradable.
Often no modifications to conventional internal
combustion engines are required to use biofuels.
(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Soil Erosion. Intensive land management for
increased crop yields has resulted in significant
soil erosion. The Iowa Natural Resources
Inventory has found that land used to produce
crops for ethanol loses about 4.9 tons of soil per
acre. This is the equivalent of 21 pounds of soil
for every gallon of fuel (2.5 kilograms per liter).
Proper Cropping for conservation
(continued)
The disadvantages of biomass as a fuel source
include: (continued)
Airborne Pollution. The burning of biomass
releases a large number of airborne particulates.
This can be a major health concern, especially in
developing nations where biomass is a major
source of fuel for cooking and heating.
What is Black Carbon?
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include:
(continued)
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include: (continued)
(continued)
Many powerful groups have lobbied government
officials to incorporate biofuels as a significant
component in a national energy policy. Some of
these initiatives include: (continued)
(continued)
In order to achieve U.S. government projected
goals, however, a number of assumptions were
made. These include: (continued)
All cropland (100%) will be managed using
no-till methods (a process of harvesting where
crop residue is left on the surface of the soil - no
plowing - to ensure consistent soil moisture and
temperature for future planting), up from about
13% today
55 million acres of cropland and pasture will be
converted to growing perennial biomass crops
(such as switchgrass, willow and other woody
materials)
(continued)
In order to achieve U.S. government projected
goals, however, a number of assumptions were
made. These include: (continued)
No significant increase or reduction in farming
acreage (from current agricultural inventories
of 455 million acres to 448 million acres in 2030)
(continued)
Anticipated sources for biomass
include: (continued)
Pulp residues (black liquors from paper processing
contain chemicals and unprocessed pulp.
Technology to gasify these liquors may provide a
more efficient energy source than simply burning
them.)
(continued)
Achieving U.S. government projected targets
envisions a significant increase in the harvesting
of residual crop materials. However, these
materials serve some very useful purposes when
left in the field. They: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
Other concerns in achieving U.S. government
projected targets by a significant increase in
the harvesting of residual crop materials
include: (continued)
(continued)
In 2005 a group of about 100 non-profit non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) wrote to
the United Nations warning that increased use
of biofuels will: (continued)
Lead to rural unemployment and depopulation
Destroy the traditions, cultures, languages and
spiritual values of indigenous peoples and rural
communities
Lead to a more extensive use of agro-chemicals,
which will affect human health and sensitive
ecosystems
(continued)
In 2005 a group of about 100 non-profit non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) wrote to
the United Nations warning that increased use
of biofuels will: (continued)
Lead to the destruction of watersheds and the
pollution of rivers, lakes and streams
Cause droughts and other local and regional
climatic extremes (due to deforestation)
(continued)
Initiatives such as the 25 x 25 publish
a list of goals that are incorporated into
biomass proposals to address concerns
such as: (continued)
Biodiversity: Native, rare and threatened plant
and animal species must be protected.
Invasive and Non-Native Species: Invasive
species must not be introduced in an effort to
increase biomass yields.
(continued)
Initiatives such as the 25 x 25 publish
a list of goals that are incorporated into
biomass proposals to address concerns
such as: (continued)
Soil Quality: Biomass production should seek to
enhance soil quality and avoid erosion.
Water Quality and Quantity: Production of
biomass should not adversely impact available
water resources or water quality.
There exist a number of alternative sources that
hold promise in producing significant quantities
of fuel. These include:
Municipal waste
Food and crop waste
Animal waste
Algae
Switchgrass
Figure 4-7: Inexpensive Biodigestor
Figure 4-8: Mature Switchgrass
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include:
Combustion: Biomass can simply be burned to
generate heat and/or electricity. Since the dawn
of time, wood has been used as a primary heat
source. Today about 3% of the U.S. electrical
energy is obtained through the burning of
wood, wood waste and municipal waste.
(continued)
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include: (continued)
Gasification: Biomass can be heated to form a
synthetic gas call Syngas. Syngas can then be
used to generate electricity or can be converted
into fuels such as ethanol, methanol or
hydrogen.
(continued)
All organic material contains the potential
for energy which can be extracted in a
number of ways. These include: (continued)
Fermentation and Biodigestion: The sugars
contained within plant material can be broken
down by yeast to produce carbon dioxide and
alcohol. This process is known as Fermentation
and is the basis for ethanol production. Similarly,
the organic material in biomass can also break
down to form methane and carbon dioxide. This
process (known as biodigestion), as well as
fermentation, are both anaerobic processes
(taking place in oxygen-free environments).
Figure 4-9: Pellet Stove
Advocates of the Woodchip Boiler technology point to
the following advantages of woodchips:
(continued)
Advocates of the Woodchip Boiler technology point to
the following advantages of woodchips: (continued)
Direct-firing
Co-firing
Pyrolysis
Gasification (syngas)
Anaerobic digestion
Table 4-1:
Average Heat
Content from
Various Biomass
Sources
Table 4-2: Energy and Bulk Densities Characteristics
of Selected Materials
Figure 4-11: Wood-to-gas Converted Vehicle
The anaerobic digestion process generates three
main products:
Biogas - a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4)
Fiber - can be used as a nutrient-rich soil
conditioner
Mesophilic
Thermophilic
Officially recognized alternative fuels (by the
U.S. Government) include:
Methanol, ethanol and other alcohols
Blends of 85 % or more alcohol with gasoline
Domestically produced natural gas
Liquefied petroleum gas (propane)
Coal-derived liquid fuels
Hydrogen
Electricity
Biodiesel (B100)
Green Diesel (fuels other than alcohol derived
directly from biological materials)
Figure 4-12: Annual U.S. Ethanol Production
Alcohol fuels offer significant advantages over
gasoline. These advantages include:
Lower emissions: Ethanol contains oxygen,
making the combustion process within the engine
more efficient. As a result, the fuel burns cleaner
with less carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and
other greenhouse gases emitted.
Higher octane: Ethanol boosts the octane content
of the fuel mix (113 versus 87 for regular unleaded
gasoline) without toxic chemicals such as benzene,
toulene and xylene (which are often used for this
purpose).
(continued)
Alcohol fuels offer significant advantages over
gasoline. These advantages include: (continued)
Biodegradable: If accidentally spilled, ethanol will
naturally degrade, leaving no lasting
environmental impact.
(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
(continued)
Figure 4-13: U.S. Cropland
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
(continued)
Disadvantages of alcohol fuels include:
(continued)
Infrastructure: Higher ethanol blends (such as
E85) require custom pumps and storage tanks.
As a result, E85 is available at less than 1% of
gasoline retail stations.
Flex-fuel vehicles: In order to burn fuel blends
greater than 10% ethanol, vehicles must be
specially adapted. Flexible fuel vehicles can burn
blends up to 85% ethanol (E85). While numbers
are growing, E85 vehicles still represent a
minority of cars on the road.
Figure 4-14: Projected Biofuel Feedstocks
The Cellulosic Biofuel technology advantages
include:
(continued)
The Cellulosic Biofuel technology advantages
include: (continued)
No fertilizers and pesticides: A major energy input
in traditional biofuel production is the need for
fertilizers and pesticides in the production of
grains. Most of these fertilizers are fossil-fuel
based. Cellulosic materials require little or no
fertilizers or pesticides.
Lignin: Cellulosic biomass contains Lignin, a
natural fiber that can also serve as an energy-rich
fuel to run biofuel processing plants. These plants
might operate solely on the energy supplied by
this byproduct of production.
The Cellulosic Biofuel Technology disadvantages
include: (continued)
High cost: The cost of producing cellulosic ethanol
is much higher than costs associated with
traditional production methods. It is hoped that as
the technology matures, these costs will decline.
Biodiversity damage: Increased production
demands may lead to the introduction of invasive
species, and damage to biodiversity (diverse
environments converted to mono-crop
production).
The Butanol advantages include:
(continued)
The Butanol advantages include: (continued)
(continued)
Biodiesel advantages include: (continued)
(continued)
Biodiesel advantages include: (continued)
(continued)
Biodiesel disadvantages include: (continued)
(continued)
Straight Vegetable Oil disadvantages include:
(continued)
(continued)
Straight Vegetable Oil disadvantages include:
(continued)
(continued)
Green Diesel advantages include: (continued)
(continued)
As the biomass energy market expands, changes
within the existing energy infrastructure will be
required. (continued)
Pipelines: Currently ethanol cannot be shipped
via existing pipelines. A cost-effective
distribution system will need to be developed if
demand is to expand dramatically. Most U.S.
biodiesel production facilities are located in the
mid-west (where the grain crops are produced),
as shown in Figure 4-16. Most demand
(population centers) is located along the coasts.
Figure 4-16: U.S. Biofuel Production Facilities
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include:
Cost of fossil fuels: Low fossil fuel prices have
limited the expansion of alternative energy in
recent decades. When fossil fuel prices soar, so
does interest in biomass fuel. Inconsistent and
low fossil fuel prices will dampen the expansion
of biofuels.
(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Feedstock prices: 57% of the cost of ethanol
and 78% of the cost of biodiesel production is
the cost of feedstock. As fuel prices increase,
so do the costs of energy-intensive feedstock
(such as corn and soy). The result is that as
fossil fuel costs rise, the cost of producing
biofuels also rises. This lowers the economic
competitiveness of biofuels.
(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Saturation of co-product markets: The
economic viability of biofuel production is
dependent upon the sale of valuable co-
products (such as glycerine and germ-meal
animal feed). Large-scale production will
saturate these specialized markets, lowering
the price and therefore decreasing the
profitability of biofuel production.
(continued)
The acceptance of any technology is ultimately
governed by economics. These constraints
include: (continued)
Governmental tax policy: Government has attempted to
encourage the development of biofuels through tax policies
such as tax credits ($0.51/gallon for ethanol, $1.00/gallon
for biodiesel for virgin oil stocks) and import tariffs on
biofuels from other countries (for example, a $0.54/gal
tariff on ethanol imported from Brazil). However, these
policies are often inconsistent and typically short-term in
scope. The lack of a long-term consistent alternative fuels
public policy has tended to constrain biofuel production in
the United States.
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist:
Crop yield efficiencies. Growth projections
assume a tremendous increase in the yield
per acre of traditional food crops. It is
unclear, however, how these efficiencies are
to be achieved.
(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Cellulosic biofuels: Key to the expansion
of the biofuels industry is the converting
of cellulosic plant matter into fuel. These
processes are still experimental and it is
unclear if they will provide an
economically viable method of fuel
production.
(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Refining efficiencies. The refining of fossil
fuels is a mature and relatively efficient
industry. Biofuel refining technologies will
need to be improved if they are to
compete.
(continued)
Many of the Biomass energy techniques are
still experimental and have not been tested in
commercial conditions. A significant number
of technical barriers still exist: (continued)
Distribution infrastructure. It remains unclear
whether the existing fuel infrastructure can
simply be modified to accept biofuels, or if
there will be the need for significant investment
in a new infrastructure to support an emerging
biofuel supply chain. The answer to this
question will greatly impact the cost and
availability of biofuels in the short term.
WARNING
Updraft generators
Downdraft generators
Cross-draft generators
Figure 4-18: Updraft Wood Gas Generator
The advantages of updraft generators include:
(continued)
There are significant limitations to the wood gas
system when compared with fossil fuels or other
biofuel sources: (continued)
Weight: When incorporated in a vehicle, the
considerable weight of a wood gas generator
(and wood fuel) will dramatically reduce the
performance of the vehicle.
Toxic Hazards
Fire Hazards
Risk of Explosion
Figure 4-21: Early Pot Still
Figure 4-22: Condensation Points within a Stills Column
Figure 4-23: Reflux Still
The major parts of the reflux still system
include:
(continued)
The major parts of the reflux still system
include: (continued)
The Column: Typically columns for small reflux
stills are constructed using copper tubing. They are
typically 2 4 feet in length (590 1200 mm). To
increase the surface area upon which the vapors
can condense, these columns are typically filled with
small heat-resistant items such as marbles, glass
beads or hollow ceramic cylinders (such as a
product called Raschig Rings). At the top of the
column, a small hole is drilled and a thermometer
attached so that temperature readings can be
monitored at the point furthest from the boiler.
(continued)
The major parts of the reflux still system
include: (continued)
The Cooling System: Early pot stills utilized a
coil of tubing to air-cool the vapors. Most
reflux stills incorporate a water-cooling system
to assist in lowering the temperatures within
the column. A simple cooling system circulates
water around a tube, lowering the temperature
to the point where ethanol vapor condenses
into liquid ethanol, as shown in Figure 4-24.
Figure 4-24: Cooling Tube
Fermentation is a series of anaerobic (without
oxygen gas present) processes that break
down sugar (glucose) into alcohol and carbon
dioxide. The resulting chemical equation
(in very basic terms):
(continued)
In commercial ethanol production facilities, the
process of unlocking the sugars from the grain
is done in one of two ways: (continued)
Wet Milling: The wet milling process is more elaborate
and expensive so the grain must be separated into its
component pieces before undergoing fermentation. The
grain is heated (for 24-48 hours) in a solution of water
and sulfur dioxide to loosen the husk and the germ. The
germ is then removed from the kernel and oil is
removed. The germ meal is then added to the husk fibers
to create a high-protein animal feed. Only the starch
portion of the grain is subjected to fermentation. The oil
and animal feed byproducts can add considerably to the
profitability of the production facility.
The distillation of ethanol creates a number of
potential safety hazards:
Explosion: Alcohol vapors are combustible
and can explode if they leak from the still and
come in contact with an open flame or spark.
The still apparatus should be tested for leaks
and should always be operated in a well-
vented location. Electric (rather than gas) heat
is often incorporated into these systems to
avoid the potential of escaping gas coming in
contact with an open flame.
(continued)
The distillation of ethanol creates a number of
potential safety hazards: (continued)
Fire: There is always a risk of fire when working
with heat and combustible materials. Alcohol
vapor as well as liquid ethanol will burn if
spilled. Extreme caution should be exercised.
(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
SAFETY WARNING
DO NOT BREATHE METHANOL OR METHOXIDE FUMES.
THEY ARE DANGEROUS AND CARTRIDGE RESPIRATORS
WILL NOT BLOCK METHANOL VAPORS.
SAFETY WARNING
AVOID METHOXIDE SPILLS. THIS MIX IS EXTREMELY
CAUSTIC TO SKIN AND SURFACES.
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
(continued)
Creating biodiesel is a fairly simple process. Steps
include: (continued)
(continued)
Throughout the production of biodiesel process
there are hazards that must be understood and
avoided. These include: (continued)
Methanol: Methanol is also caustic in additional to
being flammable. While it is safer to handle than
gasoline (according to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency) it can still ignite and its vapors can
explode if they come in contact with an open flame or
spark. It is also poisonous if consumed. Again, safety
equipment should be worn and biodiesel
manufacturing should take place in a well-ventilated
area away from ignition sources. Methanol should be
stored outdoors in sealed and approved containers.
(continued)
Throughout the production of biodiesel process
there are hazards that must be understood and
avoided. These include: (continued)
Spontaneous Combustion: Rags and other
materials often become soaked in biodiesel
(or the materials used to create biodiesel).
These can spontaneously combust and
should be stored in an approved and sealed
container.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. less than 1%
b. about 3%
c. just under 12%
d. more than 25%
EXAM QUESTIONS
a. algae
b. garbage
c. grass
d. beef
EXAM QUESTIONS
a. Pyrolysis
b. Biodigestion
c. Co-Firing
d. Gasification
EXAM QUESTIONS
a. distillation
b. triglyceride
c. transesterification
d. biodigestion
EXAM QUESTIONS
a. methanol
b. glycerine
c. ethanol
d. wash-water