Unit Operations 1

Fluid/particle Other particle size distribution tests

separations Some separation processes that work
on established principles
Hindered settling from first principles
Hindered settling by empirical methods
Thickeners
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution: Coulter
Counter
Used for particles that are too small for sieves
Electronic circuit detects voltage changes
Depends on fluid & particle conductivities
Increasing sensitivity all particles eventually pass through
Test takes about one hour

as particle passes
through
+ - pore in screen, voltage
changes; voltage
porous screen change
= f(particle volume)
electrolyte with suspended particles
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution: Laser
Scattering
project laser beam through dilute suspension of particle
photo detectors perpendicular to optical axis detect
radial scattering
Data distribution (e.g. normal) often assumed/known before
computer processing of data and distribution function gives
size distribution
test time about 1 minute
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Surface Area
Specific surface = total surface area/particle volume
NOTE: in packed bed, Vbed > Vparticle, due to VOIDAGE
If particle is spherical (unlikely):
d 2 6

6 d d
3

For non-spherical particles, use method to determine area:

BET method (Brunauer, Emmett & Teller, 1938):
used for measuring surface area for -
pigments
adsorbents
catalysts
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Surface Area
in detail:
known mass of particles placed in chamber
chamber is evacuated by vacuum pump
N2 is introduced at known rate
pressure plotted vs. time

P
formation of monomolecular N2
layer over solid

t
From number of N2 molecules & their surface area total
area of solid
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
Use a fluid to separate out our feed
Particles settle in fluid due to difference in density
Particle could be a solid or another fluid droplet
Archimedes effect:
if particle is denser than bulk fluid, it sinks
if particle is less dense than bulk fluid, it floats to top
First, lets see how two fluids are separated by this
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
GRAVITY SETTLING TANK
separation of immiscible liquids
residence time must be sufficient for all droplets to rise/fall
and coalesce

light liquid
mixed feed

heavy liquid
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics

air & dust air

How may knowing settling velocity be useful to us?

SIMPLE GRAVITY SETTLING TANKS
removal of dust from air: all particles should settle
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
Use CLASSIFICATION if we want to grade our solid product?
simple gravity settling classifier

Baffles drops or sold particles lose momentum on striking

an obstruction

slurry in fluid out

 Unit Operations 1
Spitzkasten Classifier
Classifier earlier on used settling velocity to sort out particles
Spitzkasten improves on process:
Elutriation used to remove any undersized particles that settle
too early

slurry in

water
in liquid out
 Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
If particle diameter > container diameter 200
or if particle concentration > 0.2% by volume
settling no longer FREE but HINDERED

Terminal velocity slowed down by crowding

Upward displacement of liquid more significant

Volume fraction of slurry occupied by liquid =

Relative velocity of liquid to particle = ut
effective density m = f + (1 ) s
effective viscosity m = p
where p = 101.82( 1)
 Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
substitute into Stokes Law terminal velocity equation:
ut p
d g
2
s f 1 s
18
s f d 2g 2
ut
18
p

for which d u t m du t p 1
Re
m

f 1 s

 Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
EXAMPLE:
Consider 60% w/w particle suspension in water
dparticle = 0.1554 mm, particle = 2467 kg/m3
SOLUTION:
water = 1.00510-3 Pa.s, water = 998 kg/m3

40 998
0.622
40 998 60 2467
Now find p = 101.82( 1) = 101.82(0.622 1) = 0.205
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Insert parameters into final equation:

ut

2467 998 1.554 10 3 2 9.807

0.205 0.622
2


18 1.005 10 3

ut = 1.53010-3 m/s
 Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
TEST:
uniform slurry B in graduated tank, observed over time

A A A A

B B B
interface
height C
z C z D z D z D
z
D

Plot slurry height on graph against time:

Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
z0 Initial rate:
Critical point:
zi constant
B & C disappear &
z1 compression of D starts
t1 time
Any settling velocity can be z i z1
v1
found from graph tangent: t1 0
Assuming that slurry concentration is uniform:
c1z1 = c0z0
Therefore from z0, c0 and any value of t1 we can find
c1 & v 1
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Example height of unclear liquid versus time with initial
slurry concentration = 0.250 m3 solid per m3 slurry
z (m) 0.360 0.285 0.211 0.150 0.125 0.113 0.102 0.090
t (hr) 0 0.50 1.00 1.75 3.00 5.00 12.0 15.0

Settling example
0.4
0.35
Slurry height (m)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (hours)

17
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Initial velocity for first hour
z i z1 0.360 0.211
v1 = 0.149 m/hr
t1 0 1.0 0
c 0 z 0 0.250 0.360
c1 = 0.427 m3/m3 at t = 1 hr
z1 0.211
c (m3/m3) 250 427
v (m/hr) 0.149 0.149
Settling example
0.4
0.35
Slurry height (m)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (hours)

18
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Velocity at t = 1.8 hr
z i z1 0.23 0.15
v1 = 0.044 m/hr
t1 0 1.8 0
c 0 z 0 0.250 0.360
c1 = 0.600 m3/m3 at t = 1.8 hr
z1 0.15
c (m3/m3) 250 427 600
v (m/hr) 0.149 0.149 0.044
Settling example
0.4
0.35
Slurry height (m)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (hours)

19
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Velocity at t = 3.0 hr
z i z1 0.16 0.125
v1 = 0.012 m/hr
t1 0 3.0 0
c 0 z 0 0.250 0.360
c1 = 0.720 m3/m3 at t = 3.0 hr
z1 0.125
c (m3/m3) 250 427 600 720
v (m/hr) 0.149 0.149 0.044 0.012
Settling example
0.4
0.35
Slurry height (m)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (hours)

20
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Velocity at t = 5.0 hr
z i z1 0.13 0.113
v1 = 0.0034 m/hr
t1 0 5.0 0
c 0 z 0 0.250 0.360
c1 = 0.796 m3/m3 at t = 5.0 hr
z1 0.113
c (m3/m3) 250 427 600 720 796
v (m/hr) 0.14 0.149 0.044 0.012 0.003
0.4 9 Settling example

0.35
Slurry height (m)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (hours)

21
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling

THICKENERS

What if our
slurry is dilute?

Rake helps de-

water sludge
and move it
towards centre
 Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
slurry in

A
B
liquid out C
D slow revolving
thickened sludge out rake

B zone:
if upward fluid velocity < minimum terminal settling velocity,
clear liquid overflow obtained
hindered settling at base; solid agglomeration error
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Now for the design of the real process
Volumetric flowrates are F, c0
F, V and L
If overflow clear, cV = 0
SOLID VOLUME:
Fc0 = LcL V, cV
L, cL
OVERALL VOLUMES: F = V + L

Fc0 Fc0 1 1
L V F Fc0
cL cL c0 cL
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Now for the design of the real process
If A is area of thickener F, c0
V Fc0 1 1

A A c0 cL
If V/A is matched by
settling velocity v1 if no
V, cV
solids reach overflow L, cL
Fc0 1 1 Fc0 v1
v1
A c0 cL A 1 1

c0 cL
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Now for the design of the real process
Desired thickened slurry = 0.700 m3/m3
Find cross-section of tank if feed is 1.2 m3/hr
c (m3/m3) 250 427 600 720 796
v (m/hr) 0.149 0.149 0.117 0.078 0.003
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Estimated velocity is 0.015 m/hr
ie. if not drained, slurry level will rise by 0.015 m/hr
Fc0 v1 1.2 250 0.015

A 1 1 A 1 1

c0 cL 250 700
Unit Operations 1
Hindered Settling
Area A = 51.43 m2
If tank circular, (/4)D2 = 51.43 m2
So D = 8.09 metres
If narrower, solids need to settle faster to keep level constant,
which gives too thin a product
If wider, solids need to settle slower to keep level constant,
which gives too thick a product
Method highly empirical compared to hindered settling formulae