Data Communication

&
Computer Networks

Introduction and Overview

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Prerequisites:

Background in elementary probability

Knowledge of basic computer organization

C/C++ Programming knowledge

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Computer Network

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A Simple Switched Network

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Communication Model

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Communication Model (Contd.)

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 Protocol
For successful data transmission, entities must
speak the same language
Syntax
Data formats
Signal levels
Semantics
Control information: (e.g. A bear eats shoots and leaves Vs A bear eats, shoots, and leaves).
Error handling
Timing
Speed matching
Sequencing

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 Communication tasks
Transmission System Utilization
Interfacing
Signal Generation, Synchronization:
Exchange Management
Error detection and correction

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Communication tasks (Contd.)

Addressing and routing

Message formatting
Ensuring Reliability
Security
Network Management

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A Simplified Communication
Architecture and Protocol

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 Few Basic Definitions
Signals: Sine waves
Peak Amplitude (A)
Maximum strength of signal
Frequency (f)
Rate of change of signal
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
Period = time for one repetition (T); T = 1/f
Phase ()
Relative position in time
Wavelength ()
Width of one cycle

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 Definitions (Contd.)
A signal is composed of multiple frequencies -
Can be shown using Fourier analysis.
Spectrum
Range of frequencies contained in signal
Absolute bandwidth
Width of spectrum

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Nyquists and Shanons Relations
Any transmission system can support a limited
band of frequencies
This limits the data rate as per the Nyquists
and Shannons relations.
Nyquist: C=2B*log2V, V: number of signal
levels
Shannon: C=B*log2(1+S/N), S: Signal power,
N: noise power (thermal noise)

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Addition of frequency components

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 Terminologies
bandwidth - In transmission, bandwidth is the
range of frequencies that the system may
transmit without excessive attenuation
(measured in hertz for analog carrier)
throughput - the amount of data transmitted
between two points in a given amount of time
(e.g. 10 Mbps).
speed - expressed in bits per second (bps), the
rate at which data can reliably be transmitted
over a line.
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 Terminologies (Contd.)
Baud - unit of signal frequency in signals per second.
Baud rate = bps only when the signal is represented by
a single bit.
Propagation delay - is a measure of time between the
departure of the first bit from the source on a network
and its arrival at the receiver.
Latency - Delay between the time when a device
receives a data frame and the time that the frame is
forwarded out to the destination port.
Jitter - Variation of the network delay over time.

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 Transmission modes
Simplex One-way transmission.
Half-duplex - two-way transmission, one way at a time
Full-duplex - independent, simultaneous two-way
transmission in both directions
Synchronous
- both the sender and receiver are synchronized with a clock
so receiver knows exactly where new characters begin
Asynchronous
- data is transmitted one character at a time, with intervals of
varying lengths between transmittals. Start and stop bits at
the beginning and end of each character

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Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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 Network Topology

Network Topology refers to

physical topology: how nodes are connected
logical topology: methods of accessing and
moving data
Physical Topology:
bus, ring, star, tree, mesh.
Logical Topology:
bus (every station receives the message),
ring (message travels from station to station)
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 Physical topology
Ring - network nodes are connected to access
points which are in a closed loop; data is
transmitted from node to node around the loop,
always in the same direction
Bus - network nodes are connected to the same
cable; all nodes are considered equal and
receive all transmissions on the medium
Star - network nodes attach to hubs and signals
are broadcast to all stations or pass from station
to station

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Physical topology (Contd.)

Bus Ring

Tree 21
Star
 Network Technologies
Bridging - techniques for interconnecting two LAN
segments that utilize the same LLC (Logical Link
Control) procedures but may use the same or different
MAC (Media Access Control) procedures
Forwarding - the process of sending a frame toward its
ultimate destination by an internetworking device
Routing - the process of finding a path to the destination
host.
Switching - switching and routing are complementary
technologies. Switching is known for simplicity and
performance; Routing is known for manageability and
control

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 Networking
Configuration

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 Network Types
LAN - Local Area Network. A network that
interconnects PCs, terminals, workstations,
servers, printers, and other peripherals at high
speed over short distances (Ethernet, token ring,
FDDI, ATM)
WAN - Wide Area Network. A network that
covers larger geographical areas and usually
utilizes public phone networks (T1/T3, ISDN,
xDSL, Frame Relay, ATM)
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network. Generally
MAN spans larger geographical area then LAN
and smaller than WAN
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WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 Communication Techniques
Multiplexing - a process in which multiple data
channels are combined into a single data or
physical channel at the source
De-multiplexing - process of separating
multiplexed data channels at the destination
Methods
TDM - (Synchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
ATDM - Asynchronous TDM or Statistical Multiplexing:
(bandwidth is dynamically allocated to stations that
have information to transmit)
FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing
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TDM

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 Statistical Multiplexing
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) or
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(ATDM);
Dynamically assigns the available time slots only to
users who need data transmission
Exploits bursty nature of many sources (VBR) of
traffic multiplexed together
Increases utilization of links by allowing some loss
Better than FDM or TDM

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 Multiplexing Vs. Concentration
Multiplexing is a static channel allocation scheme
in which individual frequency band or time slots
are assigned in a predetermined basis.
- The instantaneous total input and output
channel capacities are the same.
On the other hand, concentration involves the
dynamic sharing of a smaller number of output
channels by a certain number of input channels
as per requirement. Involves queuing.
ATDM actually is a hybrid of both multiplexing
and concentration.

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 Statistical Multiplexing
Queue is modelled as a Markov model (M/M/1 or
M/M/m)
nature of arrival process (Poisson distribution)
probability distribution of the service times
number of servers
Using the queuing model, different performance
parameters such as the average delay can be
computed.

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 The OSI Model
The ISO has developed the
OSI (Open Source Internetworking)
standard in order to
provide some level of
uniformity among network
vendors.
OSI reference model consists
of 7 layers. Each layer uses the
service of its lower layer to provide
a service to the layer immediately
above it.

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 Physical layer
Passes raw bit stream between computer and
network. It defines
physical topology.
voltage used.
timing information.
handshaking requirements.
mechanical and electrical specifications for cable, wire,
repeaters.
Examples: EIA-RS232, RS449, Ethernet, token ring, FDDI

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 Data Link layer
Provides reliable data transfer between
computer and network.
Packages data into data frames
Implements error control and flow control
between intermediate nodes.
Sub-layers: MAC (Media Access Control)
and LLC
Examples: SDSL, ATM, FR.
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 Network Layer
Transparency of connection management
to upper layers.
Sets up and maintains connections
between two computers using VCs or
datagrams.
Responsible for addressing and routing.
Examples: IP, X.25, IPX, RIP, OSPF
IPX: Internetwork packet exchange, RIP: Routing information protocol, OSPF: Open shortest path first

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 Transport Layer
Reliable and transparent information
transfer.
End-to-end error recovery and flow
control.
Examples: TCP, UDP, SPX, NetBEUI

SPX: Sequenced packet exchange; NetBEUI: Transport protocol used to implement Microsoft networking

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 Session Layer
Coordinates between processes;
Provides control structures for network
management such as Logon/Logoff
procedures, checkpointing during file
transfer, etc.
Examples: SNMP, FTP, SMTP, Telnet

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 Presentation and Application
Layer
Presentation layer provides data formatting
and code conversion.
Manages Network security and file transfers.
Examples: MPEG, JPEG
Application layer is where the user
applications reside; provides user interface
to lower layers.
Examples: Email, Rlogin.
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 The TCP/IP Network Protocol
Consists of Application, TCP, IP, and NA layers
Original message is broken into packets at the
TCP layer
Each layer adds control data to the message.
This process is called encapsulation

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TCP/IP Vs. OSI

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 TCP/IP Vs. OSI
As it can be seen from the previous pages there are a number of comparisons which
can be drawn between the two models. This section will therefore be focusing on
highlighting the similarities and differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models.
SIMILARITIES
The main similarities between the two models include the following:
They share similar architecture. - Both of the models share a similar architecture.
This can be illustrated by the fact that both of them are constructed with layers.
They share a common application layer.- Both of the models share a common
"application layer". However in practice this layer includes different services
depending upon each model.
Both models have comparable transport and network layers.- This can be illustrated
by the fact that whatever functions are performed between the presentation and
network layer of the OSI model similar functions are performed at the Transport layer
of the TCP/IP model.
Knowledge of both models is required by networking professionals.
Both models assume that packets are switched.- Basically this means that individual
packets may take differing paths in order to reach the same destination.

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 TCP/IP Vs. OSI
DIFFERENCES
The main differences between the two models are as follows:
TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has
developed. The OSI model however is a
"generic, protocol- independent standard." (www.netfact.com/crs)
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and network layers into the network access layer.
TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it
has fewer layers.
TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact
because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was
developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Where as in
contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a
guidance tool.
The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 5
layers.

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 Standards
Required to allow for interoperability between
equipments.

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 Standards Organizations and
Consortia
Define the physical and operational
characteristics of networking hardware and
software.
Standards are recommendations that vendors
should follow to achieve interoperability with
products from other vendors.
Industry Consortia
ATM Forum - ATM technology
Frame Relay Forum - Frame Relay technology
W3C - World Wide Web Consortium
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 Standards Organizations
IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
ITU-T - International Telecommunication Union -
Telecommunication Section (previous CCITT)
ISO - International Standards Organization.
TIA - Telecommunications Industry Association
EIA - Electronics Industries Association

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STANDARDS: IEEE 802 Series

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 Data Transmission
Data is sent in chunks called packets or frames
The exact structure of packets (size, contents) depend on
the protocol that is used for communication
Typical structure: destination address, source address,
type of data, information regarding how to reassemble the
original message, data itself, CRC for error checking.

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 Physical data transmission
Metallic cables: coaxial cables and twisted pair
cables
Carrier: Electrical pulses (electrons).
Problems: Signal attenuation, noise, bandwidth
and length limitations.
Optical fiber
Carrier: Modulated light (photons)
Problems: Expensive
Advantages: High bandwidth, sleuth-resistant,
long distance transmission.

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 Baseband transmission
One carrier frequency is used (also called
narrowband)
Electrical signal applied directly between the
wires (example: Ethernet)
Basic limitation: only one bit can be transmitted
at any given time
Efficiency is increased by using Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM flavors: synchronous and asynchronous
Signal attenuation is a big problem for baseband
networks
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 Broadband transmission
Signal is sent by modulating a carrier (AM
or FM).
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
can be used to send multiple
transmissions concurrently over a single
cable/fiber
Using narrow band filters, receivers are
able to separate out multiple signals.
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 Baseband Vs. Broadband
Signalling
Baseband:
-A baseband transmission is carried over a single wire using digital
signaling.
-Baseband communications are bidirectional. Signals can be both
sent and received (but not simultaneously.)
- Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) allows multiple signals to be
sent via baseband transmissions on a single cable. TDM
allocates the multiple signals across time slots.
Broadband:
-Broadband transmissions are analog transmissions.
-The media used in broadband transmissions is split into two
channels to allow signals to be both sent and received.
-Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is used to create multiple
broadband channels.

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 Switching Paradigms
Circuit switching
Packet switching
- Virtual circuits
- Datagram delivery
Burst switching real time connection
establishment

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 Circuit switched network

A connection is set up by physically connecting

segments of physical wire to form a continuous
electrical circuit.
Presently, the circuit is formed using TDM in the
synchronous mode
Advantage: guarantees the bit rate and, usually,
constant, predictable latency
Downside: cost of the connection depends on
the reserved bandwidth, not on actual amount of
data transferred over the circuit.
Examples: phone lines, ISDN lines
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 Packet Switching

Information chopped into small units (packets)

and is sent one at a time
Multiplex several data streams
Many sources of packets can coexist attached to
one transmission medium
Multiplexing is statistical and network behaviour
is not entirely predictable
Packets carry their destination addresses in
headers
Examples: Ethernet, FDDI, Frame Relay, IP
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 Connection-oriented vs.
connectionless
Connection-oriented: Networks are aware about two
systems communicating. The network must admit a
communication stream before data exchange starts
Connectionless: Network has no idea that two systems
communicate. Connection is never refused

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 Connection-oriented network

Implementation: virtual circuits, signaling

protocols
Advantages: more predictable traffic
Disadvantages: need call set-up which
introduces delay; wastes network
resources

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 Connectionless networks

Implementations: addresses in packet

headers
Advantages: no call set-up delay, no
busy signal
Disadvantages: difficult to reserve
resources

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