1

Todays agendum:

Electromagnetic Waves.

Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an
Electromagnetic Wave.

2
We began this course by studying fields that didnt vary
with timethe electric field due to static charges, and
the magnetic field due to a constant current.

In case you didnt noticeabout five lectures ago

things started moving!

We found that changing

magnetic field gives rise to an
electric field. Also a changing
electric field gives rise to a
magnetic field.

These time-varying electric and magnetic fields can

propagate through space.
3
 Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwells Equations
q enclosed
E dA o B dA 0
d B d E
E d s dt B d s o Iencl o dt
These four equations provide a complete description of
electromagnetism.
r r r r
E B 0
0
r r
r r dB r r 1 dE r
E=- B= 2 + 0 J
dt c dt 4
Production of Electromagnetic Waves

Apply a sinusoidal voltage to an antenna.

Charged particles in the antenna oscillate sinusoidally.

The accelerated charges produce sinusoidally varying

electric and magnetic fields, which extend throughout
space.

The fields do not instantaneously permeate all space,

but propagate at the speed of light.

x direction of
propagation
z

5
 y

x direction of
propagation
z

This static image doesnt show how the wave

propagates.

Here are a couple of animations, available on-line:

http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=35

6
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, but are
not mechanical waves (they need no medium to vibrate
in).
Therefore, electromagnetic waves can propagate in
free space.

At any point, the magnitudes of E and B (of the wave

shown) depend only upon x and t, and not on y or z. A
collection of such waves is called a plane wave.

x direction of
propagation
z

7
Manipulation of Maxwells equations leads to the
following plane wave equations for E and B:
2Ey 2Ey (x,t) 2Bz 2Bz (x,t)
= 00 = 00
x 2
t2 x 2
t2

These equations have solutions:

Ey =Emaxsin kx- t

Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t

2
where k= , =2f , and f = =c.
k
You can verify this by direct substitution.

Emax and Bmax in these notes are sometimes written by others as E 0 and
8
B0.
You can also show that

Ey Bz
=-
x t

Emax k cos kx- t =Bmax cos kx- t

Emax E 1
= = =c= .
Bmax B k 00

At every instant, the ratio of the magnitude of the

electric field to the magnitude of the magnetic field in
an electromagnetic wave equals the speed of light.
9
Summary of Important Properties of Electromagnetic
Waves
The solutions of Maxwells equations are wave-like with
both E and B satisfying a wave equation.
Ey =Emaxsin kx- t

Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t

Electromagnetic waves travel through empty space

with the speed of light c = 1/(00).

Emax and Bmax are the electric and magnetic field

10
amplitudes.
Summary of Important Properties of Electromagnetic
Waves
The components of the electric and magnetic fields of
plane EM waves are perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The
latter property says that EM waves are transverse
waves.
y

x direction of
propagation
z

The magnitudes of E and B in empty space are related

by
Emax E
E/B = c. = = =c
Bmax B k 11
Todays agendum:

Electromagnetic Waves.

Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an
Electromagnetic Wave.

12
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they

propagate through space they can transfer energy to
objects in their path. The rate of flow of energy in an
electromagnetic wave is described by a vector S, called
the Poynting vector.* r 1 r r
S= E B
0

The magnitude S represents the rate at which energy

flows through a unit surface area perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.

Thus, S represents power per unit area. The direction

of S is along the direction of wave propagation. The
units of S are J/(sm2) =W/m2.
13
*J. H. Poynting, 1884.
 r r
For an EM waveE B =EB
y r 1 r r EB
S= E B so S= .
0 0

E
S
x
B c Because B = E/c we can write
z E2 cB2
S= = .
0c 0

These equations for S apply at any instant of time and

represent the instantaneous rate at which energy is
passing through a unit area.
14
 EB E2 cB2
S= = =
0 0c 0

Ey =Emaxsin kx- t
EM waves are sinusoidal.
Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t

The average of S over one or more cycles is called the

wave intensity I.

The time average of sin2(kx - t) is , so

2 2
EmaxBmax Emax cBmax
I =Saverage = S = = =
20 20c 20

15
Energy Density

The energy densities (energy per unit volume)

associated with electric field and magnetic fields are:
1 2 1 B2
uE = 0E uB =
2 2 0

Using B = E/c and c = 1/(00) we can write

2
E
1 B2 1 c 1 00E2 1 2
uB = = = = 0E
2 0 2 0 2 0 2

1 2 1 B2
uB =uE = 0E =
2 2 0
16
 1 2 1 B2
uB =uE = 0E =
2 2 0

For an electromagnetic wave, the instantaneous energy

density associated with the magnetic field equals the
instantaneous energy density associated with the
electric field.

Hence, in a given volume the energy is equally shared

by the two fields. The total energy density is equal to
the sum of the energy densities associated with the
electric and magnetic fields:
B2
u=uB +uE = 0E =
2

17
 2
B
u=uB +uE = 0E2 =
0
When we average this instantaneous energy density
over one or more cycles of an electromagnetic wave,
we again get a factor of from the time average of
sin2(kx - t). 2 2
1 2 1 Bmax 1 2 1 Bmax
uE = 0Emax , uB = , and u = 0Emax =
4 4 0 2 2 0

2 2
1 Emax 1 cBmax
Recall Saverage = S = = so we see thatS =c u .
2 0c 2 0

The intensity of an electromagnetic wave equals the

average energy density multiplied by the speed of
18
light.
 Example: a radio station on the surface of the earth
radiates a sinusoidal wave with an average total power
of 50 kW. Assuming the wave is radiated equally in all
directions above the ground, find the amplitude of the
electric and magnetic fields detected by a satellite 100
km from the antenna.
All the radiated power passes Satellite
through the hemispherical
R
surface* so the average
power per unit area (the
intensity) is Station

I =
power
=
P
=
5.0010 W4

=7.96 10-7
W m2

area average 2R 2 1.0010 m
2 5 2

*In problems like this you need to ask whether the

19
power is radiated into all space or into just part of
space.
 2
1 Emax Satellite
I= S =
2 0c R

Emax = 20cI Station

= 2 410-7 3108 7.9610-7

=2.4510-2 V
m

Bmax =
Emax
=
2.4510-2 V
m =8.1710-11 T
c 3 108
m s

20
Example: for the radio station in the example on the
previous two slides, calculate the average energy
densities associated with the electric and magnetic
field.
2
1 2 1 Bmax
uE = 0Emax uB =
4 4 0

1 8.17 10
-11 2
1
uE = 8.8510 2.4510
-12 -2 2
uB =
4 4 410-7

J J
uE =1.3310 -15
uB =1.3310 -15

m3 m3

21
Todays agendum:

Electromagnetic Waves.

Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an
Electromagnetic Wave.

22
Momentum and Radiation Pressure

EM waves carry linear momentum as well as energy.

When this momentum is absorbed at a surface
pressure is exerted on that surface.
If we assume that EM radiation is incident on an object
for a time t and that the radiation is entirely absorbed
by the object, then the object gains energy U in time
t.
Maxwell showed that the momentum
change of the object is then: incident
U
p = (total absorption)
c
The direction of the momentum change of the object is
in the direction of the incident radiation.
23
If instead of being totally absorbed the radiation is
totally reflected by the object, and the reflection is
along the incident path, then the magnitude of the
momentum change of the object is twice that for total
absorption.

incident

reflected

2U
p = (total reflection along incident path)
c

The direction of the momentum change of the object is

again in the direction of the incident radiation.
24
Radiation Pressure

The radiation pressure on the object is defined as the

force per unit area: F
P=
A
F 1 dp
From Newtons 2 nd
Law (F = dp/dt) we P= =
have: A A dt
U
p=
For total absorption,
c
incident
1
dU
1 dp 1 d U dt = S
So P = = =
A dt A dt c c A c

(Equations on this slide involve magnitudes of vector quantities.) 25

This is the instantaneous radiation pressure in the case
of total absorption:
S
P=
c

For the average radiation pressure, replace S by

<S>=Savg=I:
Saverage I
Prad = =
c c

26
 I incident
Prad = (total absorption)
c

Following similar arguments it can be shown that:

2I incident
Prad = (total reflection)
c
reflected

27
 Example: a satellite orbiting the earth has solar energy
collection panels with a total area of 4.0 m2. If the
suns radiation is incident perpendicular to the panels
and is completely absorbed find the average solar
power absorbed and the average force associated with
the radiation pressure. The intensity (I or Saverage) of
sunlight prior to passing through the earths
atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m2.

Power =IA= 1.4 103 W 2 4.0 m2 =5.6 103 W=5.6 kW
m

Assuming total absorption of the radiation:

I m =4.710 Pa
Saverage 1.4 103 W 2
Caution! The letter
-6 P (or p) has been
Prad = = =
c c 3108 m
s used in this lecture
for power,
pressure, and

m
F =PradA= 4.710-6 N 2 4.0 m2 =1.910-5N
momentum!
28
Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.

Reflection and Refraction (Snells Law).

You must be able to determine the path of light rays using the laws of reflection and
refraction.

Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics.

You must be able to determine the conditions under which total internal reflection
occurs, and apply total internal reflection to fiber optic and similar materials.

Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.

29
 Light

Normally, light refers to the type of electromagnetic

wave that stimulates the retina of our eyes.

Light acts like a wave except when it acts like

particles.

30
*LightWaves or Particles?

http://www.nearingzero.net
(quantum007.jpg)

31
*Both! Take Physics 203 for further enlightenment!
The Speed of Light

Light is a type of electromagnetic wave and travels

with the speed c = 2.9979x108 m/s in a vacuum. (Just
use 3x108!)

How many physicists does it take to change a light bulb?

Eleven. One to do it and ten to co-author the paper. 32
Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

33
Geometric Optics

Although light is actually an electromagnetic wave, it

generally travels in straight lines (like particles do!).
We can describe many properties of light by assuming
that it travels in straight-line paths in the form of rays.
A ray is a straight line along which light is propagated.
In other contexts, the definition of ray might be
extended to include bent or curved lines.

http://www.nearingzero.net (ray.jpg)
34
A light ray is an infinitely thin beam of light. Of
course, there really isnt such a thing, but the concept
helps us visualize properties of light.

there really isnt such a thing

http://www.nearingzero.net
(rays.jpg)
35
Light rays from some
external source strike an
object and reflect off it in
all directions.
We only see those light
rays that reflect in the
direction of our eyes.

If you can see

something, it must be
reflecting light!
Zillions* of rays are simultaneously reflected in all
directions from any point of an object. Later, when we
study mirrors and lenses, we wont try do draw them
all! Just enough representative ones to understand
what the light is doing.
36
*one zillion = 10a big number
Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.

Reflection and Refraction (Snells Law).

You must be able to determine the path of light rays using the laws of reflection and
refraction.

Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics.

You must be able to determine the conditions under which total internal reflection
occurs, and apply total internal reflection to fiber optic and similar materials.

Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.

37
Reflection

Light striking a surface may be reflected, transmitted,

or absorbed. Reflected light leaves the surface at the
same angle it was incident on the surface:

i r

Real Important Note: the angles are measured relative to the

38
surface normal.
Reflection from
a smooth
surface is
specular (mirror-
like). Reflection
from a rough
surface is
http://acept.la.asu.edu/PiN/rdg/reflection/reflection.shtml
diffuse (not
mirror-like).

http://www.mic-
d.com/java/specular/

39
Refraction

Light travels in a straight

line except when it is
reflected or when it
moves from one medium
to another.

http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/light/rayOptics/refraction/refraction1.html

Refractionthe bending of light rays when light

moves from one medium to a different onetakes
place because light travels with different speeds in
different media. 40
The speed of light in a vacuum is c = 3x108 m/s. The
index of refraction of a material is defined by
c
n = , If you study light in advanced
classes, youll find it is more complex
v than this.

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the

speed of light in the material.

The speed and wavelength of light change when it

passes from one medium to another, but not the
frequency, so c
v= and n = .
n n

41
Because light never travels faster than c, n 1. For
water, n = 1.33 and for glass, n 1.5. Indices of
refraction for several materials are listed in your text.

Example: calculate the speed of light in diamond (n =

2.42).
c
v =
n

3108 m/s
v =
2.42

v = 1.24108 m/s

42
 Snells Law
When light moves from one medium into another, some
is reflected at the boundary, and some is transmitted.
The transmitted light is refracted (bent).
a is the angle of incidence, and b is the angle of
refraction.

in re
ci fr
d en ac
t te
d
ra
y a ra b
air (na) y air (nb)
water (nb) water (na)
b a

inc
ref

deni
rac

t
ted

ray
nb>na na>nb
ray

43
Light passing from air (n 1) into water (n 1.33).

Light bends towards the normal to the surface as

it slows down in water.

in
ci
d en
t ra
y a
air (na)
water (nb)
b
ref
rac
ted

nb>na
ray

44
Light passing from water (n 1.33) into air (n 1).

Light bends away from the normal to the surface

as it speeds up in air.

re
fr
ac
te
d
ra b
y air (nb)
water (na)
a

inc
deni
t
ray
na>nb

45
Snells Law, also called the law of refraction, gives
the relationship between angles and indices of
refraction:
a = n bsin b .
na sin

air (na) air (na)

a a

b b

water (nb) water (nb)

You are free to choose which is a and which is b.

is the angle the ray makes with the normal! 46

Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.

Reflection and Refraction (Snells Law).

You must be able to determine the path of light rays using the laws of reflection and
refraction.

Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics.

You must be able to determine the conditions under which total internal reflection
occurs, and apply total internal reflection to fiber optic and similar materials.

Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.

47
Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

n1 sin 1 = n 2sin 2
n2
1 = sin
sin 2
n1

Suppose n2<n1. The largest possible value of sin(2) is

1 (when 2 = 90). The largest possible value of sin(1)
is n2
1,max = n . For
sin larger than this,
1

Snells Law cannot be

1 satisfied!

This value of is called the critical angle, C. For any

angle of incidence larger than C, all of the light
incident at an interface is reflected, and none is
transmitted. 48
 1 < C 1 close to C

1 > C

Another
visualization
here.
49
 n2

n1>n

2

Ray incident normal to surface is not bent. Some is

reflected, some is transmitted.
50
 n2

n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence

51
 n2

n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidencemore

52
 n2

n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidencemorecritical angle

reached some of incident energy is reflected, some is
transmitted along the boundary layer. 53
 n2

n1>n2

Light incident at any angle beyond C is totally

internally reflected.
54
application: fiber optics

http://laser.physics.sunysb.edu/~wise/wise187/janfeb2001/rep
orts/andrea/report.html 55
Example: determine the incident angle i for which
light strikes the inner surface of a fiber optic cable at
the critical angle.

Light is incident f
at an angle i on i
a transparent nf>1
fiber. ni=1 (air)

The light refracts at an angle f.

ni sin i = n ffsin

sin i = n ffsin
56
Light strikes the 90
fiber wall an an 90-f
f
angle of i
90-f normal to the nf>1

surface. ni=1 (air)

At the critical angle, instead of exiting the fiber, the

refracted light travels along the fiber-air boundary. In
this case, 90-f is the critical angle.
nff sin 90- =n f sin c =n a sin 90 1
1
sin 90- f =
nf

Solve the above for f and use

sin i = n ffsin to
solve for i. 57
application: swimming underwater

If you are looking up from underwater, if your angle of

sight (relative to the normal to the surface) is too large,
you see an underwater reflection instead of whats
above the water.
58
application: perfect mirrors

(used in binoculars)

application: diamonds

59
Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.

Reflection and Refraction (Snells Law).

You must be able to determine the path of light rays using the laws of reflection and
refraction.

Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics.

You must be able to determine the conditions under which total internal reflection
occurs, and apply total internal reflection to fiber optic and similar materials.

Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.

60
Dispersion

Weve treated the index of refraction of a material as if

it had a single value for all wavelengths of light.

In fact, the index of refraction is generally wavelength-

(or color-) dependent. When white light passes from air
into glass, the different colours are refracted by
different angles, and therefore spread out, or are
dispersed.

It is observed that the shorter the wavelength of the

light, the greater is the refraction.

61
 62
Picture from the Exploratorium (http://www.exploratorium.edu/).
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.

Spherical Mirrors: concave and convex mirrors.

You must understand the differences between these two kinds of mirrors, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of mirrors, and be able to solve the mirror equation
for both kinds of mirrors.

63
 Mirrors

Images Formed by Plane Mirrors

Plane mirrors form virtual images; no light actually

comes from the image. The solid red rays show the
actual light path after reflection; the dashed black rays
show the perceived light path. 64
 y y

s s

*The object distance and image distance are equal:

s=-s.
The object height and image height are equal: y=y.
The magnification of a plane mirror is therefore one.

The image is upright and virtual.

The image is reversed front-to-back relative to the

object. *The sign is needed because of sign conventionssee later. 65
Example: how tall must a full-length mirror be?

s s

A light ray from the top of your head reflects directly

back from the top of the mirror.

66
 y/2


y/2

s s

To reach your eye, a light ray from your foot must

reflect halfway up the mirror (because I = R = ).

67
 y/
2


y/
2
s s

The mirror needs to be only half as tall as you.

This calculation assumed your eyes are at the top of your head.

68
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.

Spherical Mirrors: concave and convex mirrors.

You must understand the differences between these two kinds of mirrors, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of mirrors, and be able to solve the mirror equation
for both kinds of mirrors.

69
Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are made from

polished sections cut from a spherical
surface.

The center of curvature, C, is

the center of the sphere, of which C
the mirror is a section.

Of course, you dont really make these mirrors by cutting out part of a sphere of
70
glass.
The radius of curvature, R, is the radius of the
sphere, or the distance from V to C.

R
C V

71
The principal axis (or optical axis) is the line that
passes through the center of curvature and the center
of the mirror.

R
Principal or Optical C V
Axis

The center of the mirror is often called the vertex of the mirror.72
Paraxial rays are parallel to the principal axis of the
mirror (from an object infinitely far away). Reflected
paraxial rays pass through a common point known as
the focal point F.

C F V

73
The focal length f is the distance from P to F. Your text
shows that f = R/2.

f
C F P

74
Reality check: paraxial rays dont really pass exactly
through the focal point of a spherical mirror (spherical
aberration).

C F V

75
If the mirror is small compared to its radius of
curvature, or the object being imaged is close to the
principal axis, then the rays essentially all focus at a
single point.

C F V

We will assume mirrors with large radii of curvature and

objects close to the principal axis. 76
In real life you would minimize aberration by using a
parabolic mirror.

C F V

77
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.

Spherical Mirrors: concave and convex mirrors.

You must understand the differences between these two kinds of mirrors, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of mirrors, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of mirrors.

78
Concave and Convex Mirrors

There are two kinds of spherical mirrors: concave and

convex.

concave convex
F

79
Ray Diagrams for Mirrors

We can use three principal rays to construct

images. In this example, the object is outside of F.

Ray 1 is parallel to the

axis and reflects through
F.
Ray 2 passes through F
before reflecting parallel
to the axis. C F
Ray 3 passes
through C and
reflects back on
itself.
Well also use three for convex mirrors, but there will be a different 80
version of ray 2.
Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors

We use three principal rays to construct images.

An image is formed where the rays converge.

The image from a

concave mirror, object
outside the focal point, is
real, inverted, and
smaller than the object. C F
Two rays would be enough to show us
where the image is. We include the
third ray for safety. You dont have
to use principal rays, but they are
easiest to trace.

Real image: you could put a camera there and detect the 81
image.
The image from a concave mirror, object inside the
focal point, is virtual, upright, and larger than the
object.
Ray 1: parallel to the Ray 2: through F then
axis then through F. parallel to the axis.

Ray 3: through C.

C F

With this size object, there was a bit of

spherical aberration present, and I had82 to
cheat my C a bit to the left to make the
You could show that if an object is placed at the focal
point, reflected rays all emerge parallel, and *no image
is formed.
Ray 1: parallel to the Ray 2: through F then
axis then through F. parallel to the axis. Cant do!

Ray 3: through C.

no image
C F

Worth thinking about: what if the

object is placed between F and *Actually, the image is formed at infinity.
83
C?
The Mirror Equation

With a bit of geometry, you can show that

1 1 1
+ =
s s' f

The magnification is the s

ratio of the image to the
object height: y f

y' s' C y
m= = - F
y s s

84
 1 1 1 y' s'
+ = m= = -
s s' f y s
Sign conventions for the mirror equation:

When the object, image,

or focal point is on the
reflecting side of the
mirror, the distance is s
positive. y f
When the object, image,
or focal point is behind C y F
the mirror, the distance is s
negative.

The image height is positive if the image is upright,

and negative if the image is inverted relative to the
85
object.
Example: a dime (height is 1.8 cm) is placed 100 cm
away from a concave mirror. The image height is 0.9
cm and the image is inverted. What is the focal length
of the mirror.
1 1 1 y' s'
+ = m= = -
s s' f y s

y f

C y F
s
s, s, or f on reflecting side are
+
y is if image is inverted
86
 Applications of concave mirrors.

Shaving mirrors.

Makeup mirrors.

Solar cookers.

Flashlights, headlamps, stove reflectors.

Satellite dishes (when used with electromagnetic

radiation).

87
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.

Spherical Mirrors: concave and convex mirrors.

You must understand the differences between these two kinds of mirrors, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of mirrors, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of mirrors.

88
Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors

Ray 1: parallel to the Ray 2: through Vertex.

axis then through F.

Ray 3: through C.

F C

The image is virtual, upright, and smaller than the 89

object.
Instead of sending ray 2 through V, we could have
sent it through F. The ray is reflected parallel to the
principal axis.

F C

Your text talks about all four of the principal rays we

90
have used.
The mirror equation still works for convex mirrors.
1 1 1 y' s'
+ = m= = -
s s' f y s

s
f
y s
y
F C

Because they are on the other side of the mirror from

91
the object, s and f are negative.
Example: a convex rearview car mirror has a radius of
curvature of 40 cm. Determine the location of the
image and its magnification for an object 10 m from
the mirror.
The ray diagram looks like the one on the previous
slide, but with the object much further away (difficult to
draw).
1 1 1
+ =
s s' f

1 1 1 1 1
= =
s' f s -0.2 m 10 m

Not on On reflecting
reflecting sidepositiv
sidenegative e. 92
.
 1 1 1
=
s' -0.2 m 10 m

algebra

s'= - 0.196 m= -19.6 cm

s' -0.196 m 1
m= - = - =
s 10 m 51

Remind me what does it say on passenger side rear

view mirrors?

93
 Applications of convex mirrors.

Passenger side rear-view mirrors.

Grocery store aisle mirrors.

Railroad crossing mirrors.

Anti-shoplifting (surveillance) mirrors.

Christmas tree ornaments.

94
 Sign Conventions Introduced Today

When the object, image, or focal point is on the

reflecting side of the mirror, the distance is positive.

When the object, image, or focal point is behind the

mirror, the distance is negative.

The image height is positive if the image is upright,

and negative if the image is inverted relative to the
object.

95
 Summary of Sign Conventions

Heres a compact way of expressing mirror and

lens (coming soon) sign conventions all at once.

Object Distance. When the object is on the same

side as the incoming light, the object distance is
positive (otherwise is negative).

Image Distance. When the image is on the same

side as the outgoing light, the image distance is
positive (otherwise is negative).

Radius of Curvature. When the center of curvature

C is on the same side as the outgoing light, R is
positive (otherwise is negative).
96
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.

Thin Lenses: Concave and Convex Lenses, Ray

Diagrams, Solving the Lens Equation.
You must understand the differences between these two kinds of lenses, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of lenses, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of lenses.

If Time Allows: Lens Combinations, Optical Instruments.

You should be aware of this useful information.

97
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces

Convex surface:

1

R
2
axi
s C F

f
n nb>n
a a

Geometry: a light ray parallel nb

f = R >R
to the axis passes through F. nb - na
98
An extended object will form an image inside the nb
medium.

Ray 1: parallel to the axis, through

F.
1 Ray 3: through C.

R
2

axi
s
C F

s f
s
n nb>n
a a

This image is real and

inverted. 99
Concave surface:

F C axi
s

f
n nb>n
a a

Geometry: a light ray parallel nb

f = R >R
to the axis seems to have nb - na
come from F. 100
An extended object will form an image inside the na
medium.
Ray 1: parallel to the axis, through
F.
Ray 3: through C.

F C axi
s

f
n nb>n
a a

The image is virtual and

upright.
There are three different places to put the object. The different
images formed are always virtual and upright. 101
We can use geometry to derive an equation relating
the image and source positions, and an equation for
the magnification.

axi
C F
s R

s f
s
n nb
a

na nb nb - na y' nas'
+ = m= =-
s s' R y nbs 102
The same equations work for concave surfaces.

F C s axi
s
s
f
n nb
a

na nb nb - na y' nas'
+ = m= =-
s s' R y nbs 103
Approximations Were Used!

The equations in this section are excellent

approximations if both the angles of incidence and
refraction are small.

104
Sign Conventions

R is positive when it is in the medium into which the

light propagates. R is negative when it is in the
medium from which the light radiates.

The image distance is positive when the image is in

the medium into which the light propagates, and
negative if it is in the medium from which the light
radiates (virtual image).

The object distance is positive when the object is in

the medium from which the light radiates (the usual
casea real object), and negative if on the side
opposite to the light source (a virtual object).
105
These are really the same as for mirrors.
Example: a Jurassic mosquito is discovered embedded
in an amber sphere which has an index of refraction of
1.6. The radius of curvature of the sphere is 3.0 mm.
The mosquito is located on the principal axis and
appears to be imbedded 5.0 mm into the amber. How
deep is the mosquito really?
na nb nb - na
+ =
s s' R nb=1 na=1.6

The object is in the

amber, so na=1.6
and nb=1.
R
The image is in the s
medium from which the s
light radiates so s=-5.0
mm. Notice the reversed orientation. . .
106
R is negative because it is in the medium from which
the light radiates. R=-3.0 mm.

1.6 1 1-1.6
+ =
s -5.0 -3

s= 4 mm nb=1 na=1.6

R
s
s

107
Todays agendum:

Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.

You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.

Thin Lenses: Concave and Convex Lenses, Ray

Diagrams, Solving the Lens Equation.
You must understand the differences between these two kinds of lenses, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of lenses, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of lenses.

If Time Allows: Lens Combinations, Optical Instruments.

You should be aware of this useful information.

108
Thin Lenses

A lens in this section is taken to be a single object

made of transparent material of refractive material
n>1.
There are two surface
boundaries. Light from an
object incident on the first
surface forms an image, which
becomes the object for the
second surface.
A thin lens is one for which the
distance from the object to
each of the two surfaces is the
same (and the distance from This would NOT
the image to each surface is qualify as a thin
lens.
the same). 109
Until I figure out how to use Powerpoint
to fill in the lens color, I will make my
lenses look hollow, like this.

There are several surface combinations

from which we can make lenses. Here
are three (there are more).

110
Converging and Diverging Lenses

Thin lenses can be converging or diverging.

The converging lens is thicker in the center. The

diverging lens is thicker at the edges.

There are focal points on both sides of each lens. The

focal length is the same whether light passes from
left to right or right to left.
111
There are two surfaces at which light
refracts. Our equations (provided
later) automatically take care of
this.

In your diagrams, simply draw the

incident ray up to the center of the
lens, then draw the refracted ray in its
final direction.

112
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.

Thin Lenses: Concave and Convex Lenses, Ray

Diagrams, Solving the Lens Equation.
You must understand the differences between these two kinds of lenses, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of lenses, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of lenses.

If Time Allows: Lens Combinations, Optical Instruments.

You should be aware of this useful information.

113
Ray Diagrams for Converging Lenses

Ray 1 is parallel to the axis and refracts through F.

Ray 2 passes through F before refracting parallel to
the axis.
Ray 3 passes straight through the center of the lens.

I
O F F

The image is real and inverted. In this case, it is larger

than the object.
114
Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lenses

Ray 1 is parallel to the axis and refracts as if through

F.
Ray 2 heads towards F before refracting parallel to the
axis.
Ray 3 passes straight through the center of the lens.

O F I F

The image is virtual and upright. It is smaller than the

object.
115
Converging and Diverging Lenses

The image formed by a converging lens may be real,

inverted, and either smaller or larger than the object.
It may also be virtual, upright, and larger than the
object. See this web page.
The image formed by a diverging lens is always
virtual, upright, and smaller than the object. See this
web page.
Do these lens properties remind you of anything
youve studied recently?

116
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.

Thin Lenses: Concave and Convex Lenses, Ray

Diagrams, Solving the Lens Equation.
You must understand the differences between these two kinds of lenses, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of lenses, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of lenses.

If Time Allows: Lens Combinations, Optical Instruments.

You should be aware of this useful information.

117
The Lensmakers Equation

s
s s s

1 1 1
1 1 1 1 = n-1
+ = n-1 f Ra Rb
s s' Ra Rb
1 1 1 y' s'
The Lensmakers Equation + = M= = -
s s' f y 118s
Sign Conventions for The Lens Equation

1 1 1 y' s'
+ = M= = -
s s' f y s
The focal length f is positive for converging lenses and
negative for diverging lenses.

The object distance s is positive if the object is on the

side of the lens from which the light is coming;
otherwise s is negative.

The image distance s is positive if the image is on the

opposite side of the lens from where the light is
coming; otherwise s is negative.

The image height y is positive if the image is upright

and negative if the image is inverted relative to the 119
Example: an object is located 5 cm in front of a
converging lens of 10 cm focal length. Find the image
distance and magnification. Is the image real or virtual?

Its just a coincidence

that the image is
located at F.

O F F

1 1 1 1 1 1 s' -10
= - = - =- M= - =- =2
s' f s +10 +5 10 s 5
Image distance is 10 cm, image is on side of lens light
is coming from, so image is virtual. M=2 so image is120
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.

Thin Lenses: Concave and Convex Lenses, Ray

Diagrams, Solving the Lens Equation.
You must understand the differences between these two kinds of lenses, be able to
draw ray diagrams for both kinds of lenses, and be able to solve the lens equation
for both kinds of lenses.

If Time Allows: Lens Combinations, Optical

Instruments.
You should be aware of this useful information.

121
Lens Combinations

To determine the image formed by a combination of

two lenses, simply...

calculate the image formed by the first lens

then use the first lens image as the source (object)

for the second lens.

There is no homework on lens combinations.

122
Optical Instruments

A Simple Magnifier

h
O
25 cm (near point)

I F O p
q

Magnifier 123
Refracting Telescope

For viewing very far objects. Object distance taken as infi

h
h h fe fo
tan o o tan M
fo fe o h fe
fo
124
Terrestrial Telescopes

For producing upright images:

Galilean telescope Field-lens telescope

125
Reflecting Telescope

Newtonian-focus reflecting telescope

126
Compound Microscope
Again has objective and eyepiece, but because it is for
viewing very near objects it is very different from the
telescope.
Objective magnification:
hi q l fe
mo
ho p p

Eyepiece magnification:
.25
Me
fe

Overall magnification:
.25 l f e .25l
M M e mo
fe p fe fo
127
 Summary of Sign Conventions
Mirrors
When the object, image, or
focal point is on the reflecting
side of the mirror, the distance
is positive.
When the object, image, or
focal point is behind the
mirror, the distance is negative.
The image height is positive if the
image is upright, and negative if
the image is inverted relative to
the object.
Lenses
The focal length f is positive for
converging lenses and negative for
diverging lenses.
The object distance s is positive if
the object is on the side of the lens
from which the light is coming;
otherwise s is negative (and the
object is virtual).
The image distance s and radius
of curvature R are positive if the
image is on the side of the lens
into which the light is going;
otherwise negative.
The image height is positive if the
image is upright, and negative if
the image is inverted relative to
the object. 128
 Summary of Sign Conventions

Heres a more compact way of expressing the

sign conventions all at once.

Object Distance. When the object is on the same

side as the incoming light, the object distance is
positive (otherwise is negative).

Image Distance. When the image is on the same

side as the outgoing light, the image distance is
positive (otherwise is negative).

Radius of Curvature. When the center of curvature

C is on the same side as the outgoing light, R is
positive (otherwise is negative).
129
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.

Youngs Double Slit Experiment.

You must understand how the double slit experiment produces an interference
pattern.

Conditions for Interference in the Double Slit

Experiment.
You must be able to calculate the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in the double slit experiment.

Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment.

You must be able to calculate intensities in the double slit experiment.

130
 Interference

Review of Waves

This section is a review of material you learned in

your previous physics course (perhaps Physics 103).
y
Consider a wave described by
y(x,t) A sin (kxt)
. x

The phase of this wave is

(x,t) kx t .
d dx
Also k .
dt dt
131
If is constant with time (i.e., d/dt=0), then we are
moving with the wave, and
dx
.
dt k
The phase velocity, vp, is given by

vp .
k
y

Imagine yourself riding on any point on

this wave. The point you are riding
x moves to the right. The velocity it
moves at is vp.

If the wave is moving from left to right then /k must be positive.

132
Superpositiona Characteristic of All Waves

When waves of the same nature travel past some point

at the same time, the amplitude at that point is the sum
of the amplitudes of all the waves

The amplitude of the electric field at a point is found by

adding the instantaneous amplitudes, including the
phase, of all electric waves at that point.

In Physics 103 you may have learned that power (or

intensity) is proportional to amplitude squared. The
intensity of the superposed waves is proportional to
the square of the
amplitude of the resulting sum of waves.
133
Interferencea Result of the Superposition of Waves

Constructive Interference: If the waves are in

phase, they reinforce to produce a wave of greater
amplitude.

Destructive Interference: If the waves are out of

phase, they reinforce to produce a wave of reduced
amplitude.

134
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.

Youngs Double Slit Experiment.

You must understand how the double slit experiment produces an interference
pattern.

Conditions for Interference in the Double Slit

Experiment.
You must be able to calculate the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in the double slit experiment.

Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment.

You must be able to calculate intensities in the double slit experiment.

135
Youngs Double Slit Experiment

This experiment demonstrates

the wave nature of light.
Consider a single light source,
and two slits. Each slit acts as
a secondary source of light.

Light waves from secondary

slits interfere to produce
alternating maxima and
minima in the intensity.

Reference and toys: fsu magnet lab, colorado.

Interesting reading: the double slit experiment and quantum mechanics. 136
How does this work?

Light waves from the two slits arriving at the detection

screen in phase will interfere constructively and light
waves arriving out of phase will interfere destructively.

In phase Out of phase

constructive. destructive. 137
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.

Youngs Double Slit Experiment.

You must understand how the double slit experiment produces an interference
pattern.

Conditions for Interference in the Double Slit

Experiment.
You must be able to calculate the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in the double slit experiment.

Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment.

You must be able to calculate intensities in the double slit experiment.

138
Conditions for Interference

Sources must be
monochromatic-of a single
wavelength.
Sources must be coherent--
must maintain a constant
phase with respect to each
other.

Heres the geometry I will

use in succeeding
diagrams.

139
 For an infinitely distant* scree
L1
y L1

S1 L2

d
P d
y L2
tan
L R
S2 L = L2 L1 = d sin

*so that all the angles

R labeled are
approximately equal

140
 L1 Constructive Interference:
L d sin m, m=0, 1, 2...

d
L2 Destructive Interference:

L = L2 L1 = d sin 1
L d sin m+ , m=0, 1, 2...
2

The parameter m is called the order of the

interference fringe. The central bright fringe at = 0
(m = 0) is known as the zeroth-order maximum. The
first maximum on either side (m = 1) is called the
first-order maximum.
141
 y R tan R sin
L1
y Bright fringes:
S1 L2 m d sin

y
d m d
P R
y
tan
L R R
S2 y m
d

Do not use the small-angle

approximation unless it is
valid!

142
 y R tan R sin
L1
y Dark fringes:
S1 L2 1
m d sin
2
d 1 y
y P m d
tan 2 R
L R
S2 R 1
y m
d 2

Do not use the small-angle

approximation unless it is
valid!

143
Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Determine the
wavelength of the light.
y R tan R sin

Bright fringes: L1
y
S1
m d sin L2

y P
m d tan
y
R L R
S2
yd

Rm
R

4.5 10-2
5.6 10
m 3.0 10-5 m 7
m 560 nm
1.2 m 2 144
Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Find the
distance between adjacent bright fringes.
y R tan R sin
L1
Bright fringes: y
S1
L2
m d sin

y y P
tan
m d L R
R S2
R
y m
d R

ym+1-ym
R R
m 1 m
R

5.6 10 m 1.2 m 2.2 10-
7
2
m 2.2 cm
d d d 3.0 10 m
-5 145
 Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Find the width of
the bright fringes.
Define the bright fringe width to
be the distance between two
adjacent destructive minima. L1
y
1 ydark S1
m d sin d L2

2 R
R 1 y P
ydark m tan
S2 L R
d 2

R 1 R 1 R
ydark,m+1-ydark,m m 1 m R
d 2 d 2 d

ydark,m+1-ydark,m
5.6 10 m 1.2 m 2.2 cm
7

3.0 10 m
-5
146
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.

Youngs Double Slit Experiment.

You must understand how the double slit experiment produces an interference
pattern.

Conditions for Interference in the Double Slit

Experiment.
You must be able to calculate the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in the double slit experiment.

Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment.

You must be able to calculate intensities in the double slit experiment.

147
Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment

Our equations for the

minima and maxima
intensity positions are for
the centers of the fringes.

In this section, we calculate

distribution of light intensity
in the double-slit interference
pattern.

148
The derivation of the double-slit intensity equation is
not particularly difficult, so study it if you find
derivations helpful for your understanding.

A path length difference

L= corresponds to a
phase difference of
=2.

A path length difference

L=m corresponds to a
phase difference of
=2m.
In general, for non-integral m, the phase difference at P
between the waves from S1 and S2 is
L d sin 2
= = = d sin
2x x x 149
Your text writes the equation for the intensity
distribution in the double-slit experiment in terms of
the phase difference on the previous slide.

Your starting equation for

the intensity is
2
I =I 0 cos

where I0 is 4 times the peak

intensity of either of the two
interfering waves:
I 0 =4I single wave

150
Why did my previous diagrams show this?
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.

Phase Change Due to Reflection.

You must be able to determine whether or not a phase change occurs when a wave
is reflected.

Thin Film Interference.

You must be able to calculate thin film thicknesses for constructive or destructive
interference.

Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.

151
Interference from Reflection

Phase Change Due to Reflection

Light undergoes a phase change of 180 ( radians)

upon reflection from a medium that has a higher index
of refraction than the one in which the wave is
traveling.

152
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.

Phase Change Due to Reflection.

You must be able to determine whether or not a phase change occurs when a wave
is reflected.

Thin Film Interference.

You must be able to calculate thin film thicknesses for constructive or destructive
interference.

Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.

153
 Thin Film Interference

Thin film
interference is
caused by

phase
difference of
reflected waves
due to reflection
off a higher-n
material, and
http://www.photographyblog.com/gallery/showphoto.php?photo=5545

phase difference of reflected waves due to path

length differences.
154
Thin Film Interference
180 phase change

Ray undergoes
a phase change No phase change
on reflection. Air

Film
Ray has a t nAir < nFilm
phase change
due to the path
difference. Air

Do the reflected rays interfere destructively or

constructively?
Caution! The wavelength in the film is different than in
air.
Dark lines in drawings are there to help you see the boundaries, and are not a separate
155
medium.
Assume the incident light is nearly perpendicular to the
film surface.
180 phase change
The path length
difference is
No phase change
approximately 2t.
Air
There is a 180
Film
phase difference t n <n
( of a film = Air Film
nfilm
wavelength) due
to the first Air
reflection.
We will get destructive interference when the path
difference is an integral number of wavelengths:

2t =m film =m 2nfilmt =m,m=0,1, 2...
nfilm
156
 Assume the incident light is nearly perpendicular to the
film surface.
180 phase change

No phase change
We get
Air
constructive
interference Film
when the path t n <n
film = Air Film
difference is nfilm
film/2, 3film/2,
Air
5film/2, etc.
We will get constructive interference when the
path difference is a half-integral number of
wavelengths:
1 1 1
2t = m+ film = m+ 2nfilmt = m+ ,m=0,1, 2...
2 2 nfilm 2
157
The equations below are not on your starting equation
sheet.
180 phase change

You need to apply

No phase change
the reasoning
Air
used in deriving
them to each of Film
your thin film t nAir < nFilm
film =
interference nfilm
problems.
Air

2nfilmt =m,m=0,1, 2...

1
2nfilmt = m+ ,m=0,1, 2...
2
These are only true when the film is surrounded by a medium
158
with lower index of refraction than the film!
 Caution!
180 phase change
These are valid when
the light is incident
almost perpendicular No phase change
to the film: Air

Film
2nfilmt =m t nAir < nFilm
film =
nfilm
1
2nfilmt = m+
2 Air

The incident ray in the diagram clearly does not qualify

visually as almost perpendicular. Thats because the
angle relative to the normal is exaggerated for viewing
convenience. 159
 Caution!
180 phase change

No phase change
Air

Film
t nAir < nFilm
film =
nfilm
Air

For truly non-perpendicular incidence, you have to take

into account the extra path length of the ray reflected at
the air-film interface (as well as the extra path length
inside the film).
160
Thin Film Interference Problem Solving Tips

Identify the thin film causing the interference.

Determine the phase relationship between the portion

of the wave reflected at the upper surface and the
portion reflected at the lower surface.

Phase differences have two causes: (1) path

differences and (2) phase changes upon reflection.

When the total phase change is an integer multiple of

the wavelength (, 2, 3, etc.) the interference is
constructive, and when it is a half-integer multiple of
the wavelength (/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.) it is destructive.

161
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.

Phase Change Due to Reflection.

You must be able to determine whether or not a phase change occurs when a wave
is reflected.

Thin Film Interference.

You must be able to calculate thin film thicknesses for constructive or destructive
interference.

Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.

162
Example: a glass lens is coated on one side with a thin
film of MgF2 to reduce reflection from the lens surface.
The index of refraction for MgF2 is 1.38 and for glass is
1.50. What is the minimum thickness of MgF2 that
eliminates reflection of light of wavelength = 550
nm? Assume approximately perpendicular angle of
incidence for the light.
180 phase change

Both rays and 180
experience a 180 phase Air phase
shift on reflection so the nAir = 1.00 change
total phase difference is MgF2
due to the path difference t
n= 1.38
of the two rays.

glass, ng =1.50 163

The reflected light is minimum when the two light rays
meet the condition for destructive interference: the
path length difference is a half-integral multiple of the
light wavelength in MgF2.
1
2t = m+ ,m=0,1, 2...
2 nMgF2
180 phase change
The minimum thickness is
for m=0. 180
Air phase
nAir = 1.00 change
2tmin =
2nMgF2
MgF2
n= 1.38 t
550 nm
tmin = = =99.6 nm
4nMgF2 4 1.38
glass, ng =1.50 164
 Example: two glass plates 10 cm long are in contact on
one side and separated by a piece of paper 0.02 mm
thick on the other side. What is the spacing between
the interference fringes? Assume monochromatic light
with a wavelength in air of = 500 nm incident
perpendicular to the slides.
The light that is partly reflected at the bottom of the
first glass surface and partly transmitted is responsible
for the interference fringes.*

Ray is not phase shifted on

reflection. Ray is shifted 180 on
reflection.
H t
For destructive
x
interference
2t =mm=01 2... L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 165
m
*This reference explains why there is no visible interference due to the relatively thick glass plates themselves.
2t =mm=01 2...

t H Hx
= t=
x L L

Hx L
2 =m x =m =m
0.1 m 500 nm
=m 1.25 mm
L 2H 2 210 m
-5

x is the distance from the

contact point to where
destructive interference takes
place.
H t
Successive dark fringes
x
are separated by 1.25
L = 10 cm
mm.
H = 2x10-5 166
m
 1
For constructive 2t = m+ m=01 2...
interference 2
t H Hx
= t=
x L L

Hx 1 1 L
2 = m+ x = m+
L 2 2 2H

Successive bright fringes occur

for m+ and (m+1)+.

Hx 1
2 = m+1 +
L 2 H t
3 L x
x = m+
2 2H L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 167
m
Successive bright fringes
are separated by 1.25
mm.

H t
x
L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 168
m
Example: suppose the glass plates have ng = 1.50 and
the space between them contains water (nw = 1.33).
What happens now?

Ray is not phase shifted on reflection. Ray is

shifted 180 on reflection. Both are the same as before.

For destructive 2t =mm=01 2...

interference
But the path difference now occurs
in water, where the light will have
a wavelength

H t
nwater x
Repeat the calculation, using water. L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 169
m
For destructive interference, we now have

x =m
L water
=m
0.1 m 500 nm/1.33
=m 0.94 mm
2H 2 210 m
-5

Successive dark fringes are separated by 0.94

mm.

H t
x
L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 170
m
Two lectures ago I showed you these two plots of the
intensity distribution in the double-slit experiment:

Peak intensity varies with Peak intensity independent of

angle. angle.

Which is correct? 171

 Diffraction
Light is an electromagnetic wave, and like all waves,
bends around obstacles.

<<d d >>d

This bending, which is most noticeable when the

dimension of the obstacle is close to the wavelength
of the light, is called diffraction. Only waves
172
diffract.
Diffraction pattern from a
penny positioned halfway
between a light source and a
screen.
The shadow of the penny is
the circular dark spot.

Notice the circular bright and

dark fringes.

The central bright spot is not a defect in the picture. It

is a result of light bending around the edges of the
penny and interfering constructively in the exact
center of the shadow.

173
Single Slit Diffraction

In the previous chapter we calculated the interference

pattern from a pair of slits.

One of the
assumptions in the

calculation was that

the slit width was very
small compared with a
the wavelength of the
Now
light.we consider
the effect of finite
slit width. We start
with a single slit.
Each part of the slit acts as a source of light rays, and
these different light rays interfere. 174
Divide the slit in half.

Ray travels
a/2
farther* than ray
a
by (a/2)sin.
a/2
Likewise for rays
and .
a
If this path difference is exactly sin
2
half a wavelength (corresponding
to a phase difference of 180)
then the two waves will cancel
each other and destructive
interference results.
a
Destructive interference: sin =
2 2

*All rays from the slit are converging at a point P very far to the right and out of the
175
picture.
 Destructive

interferenc
e:
a
sin = a/2
2 2 a
a/2
a sin =
a
sin
sin = 2
a

If you divide the slit into 4 equal parts, destructive

2
interference occurs when sin = .
a
If you divide the slit into 6 equal parts, destructive
3
interference occurs when sin = .
a 176



a/2
a
a/2

a
sin
2

In general, destructive interference occurs when

sin =m , m=1, 2, 3, ...
a

The above equation gives the positions of the dark

fringes. The bright fringes are approximately halfway177in
between.
Use this geometry for
tomorrows single-slit y
homework problems.

a
If is small,* then it is
O
valid to use the
approximation sin
.
( must be expressed
in radians.) x

*The approximation is quite good for angles of

10 or less, and not bad for even larger
angles.
178
Single Slit Diffraction Intensity

I wont derive the intensity distribution for the single

slit. The general features of that distribution are
shown below.

Most of the intensity is in the central maximum. It is

twice the width of the other (secondary) maxima.
179
New starting equations for single-slit intensity:

2
= a sin

2
sin /2
I =I 0
/2

Toy

180
Example: 633 nm laser light is passed through a narrow
slit and a diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
6.0 m away. The distance on the screen between the
centers of the first minima outside the central bright
fringe is 32 mm. What is the slit width?

y1 = (32 mm)/2 tan = y1/L tan sin for small

L
sin = a=
a sin y1/L y1

6.0 m 63310-9 m
a=
16 10-3
m

a=2.3710-4 m
181
Resolution of Single Slit (and Circular Aperture)

The ability of optical systems to distinguish closely

spaced objects is limited because of the wave nature
of light.

If the sources are far enough apart so that their

central maxima do not overlap, their images can be
distinguished and they are said to be resolved. 182
When the central maximum of one image falls on the
first minimum of the other image the images are said
to be just resolved. This limiting condition of resolution
is called Rayleighs criterion.

183
From Rayleighs criterion we can determine the
minimum angular separation of the sources at the slit
for which the images are resolved.
These come from a=

sin
the small angle
For a slit of width a: = approximation, and geometry.
a
1.22
For a circular aperture of diameter =
D: D
Resolution is wavelength limited! 184
If a single slit diffracts, what about a double slit?

Remember the double-slit interference pattern from

the chapter on interference?

2 d sin
I =I max cos

If the slit width (not the

spacing between slits) is
small (i.e., comparable to the
wavelength of the light), you
must account for diffraction.
interference only
185
Double Slit Diffraction

r1
y
a
S1 r2

P
d
S2

186
Diffraction Gratings
A diffraction grating consists of a large number of
equally spaced parallel slits.

The path difference

between rays from any
two adjacent slits is =
dsin .

If is equal to some
integer multiple of the
wavelength then waves
d
from all slits will arrive in
phase at a point on a
= d sin
distant screen.
d sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ...
Interference maxima occur for
187
Ok whats with this equation monkey business?

double-slit
d sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... interference
constructive

single-slit diffraction
a sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... destructive!

diffraction grating
d sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... constructive

188
Diffraction Grating Intensity Distribution

Interference Maxima:
d sin =m

= d sin
The intensity maxima are
brighter and sharper than
for the two slit case. 189
190
Application: spectroscopy

visible light

hydrogen

helium

mercury

You can view the atomic spectra for each of the elements here.
191
Example: the wavelengths of visible light are from
approximately 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). Find
the angular width of the first-order visible spectrum
produced by a plane grating with 600 slits per
millimeter when white light falls normally on the
grating.
Interference Maxima: d sin =m
1
d= =1.67 10-6 m
600 slits/mm

V 1 40010-9 m
First-order violet: sin V =m = =0.240
d 1.6710 m
-6

V =13.9

192
 R 1 70010-9 m
First-order red: sin R =m = =0.419
d 1.6710 m
-6

R =24.8

R V =24.8 -13.9 =10.9

10.9

visible light 193

Example: for this diffraction grating show that the
violet end of the third-order spectrum overlaps the red
end of the second-order spectrum.

V 3 40010-9 m 1.2010-6 m
sin V =m =
Third-order violet: =
d d d

V 2 70010-9 m 1.4010-6 m
sin R =m =
Second-order red: =
d d d

sin R2 >sin V3

No matter what the grating spacing, d, the largest

angle for the 2nd order spectrum (for the red end) is
always greater than the smallest angle for the 3rd
order spectrum (for the violet end), so 2nd and 3rd
orders always overlap. 194
Diffraction Grating Resolving Power

Diffraction gratings let us measure wavelengths by

spreading apart the diffraction maxima associated
with different wavelengths. In order to distinguish two
nearly equal wavelengths the diffraction must have
sufficient resolving power, R.

Consider two wavelengths 1 and 2 that are nearly

equal.
1 + 2
The average wavelengthis
avg =
and the differenc
2
= 2 - 1 .

avg
The resolving power is defined Ras
= .

195
 avg
R=

For a grating with N lines illuminated it can be shown
that the resolving power in the mth order diffraction is
R =Nm.

Dispersion

Spectroscopic instruments need to resolve spectral

lines of nearly the same wavelength.

mercury

The greater the angular

angular dispersion= dispersion, the better a

spectrometer is at resolving
196
nearby lines.
Example: Light from mercury vapor lamps contain
several wavelengths in the visible region of the
spectrum including two yellow lines at 577 and 579
nm. What must be the resolving power of a grating to
distinguish these two lines?
mercury

577 nm + 579 nm
avg = = 578 nm
2

=579 nm - 577 nm= 2 nm

avg
578 nm
R= = =289
2 nm
197
Example: how many lines of the grating must be
illuminated if these two wavelengths are to be resolved
in the first-order spectrum?

mercury

R =289

R 289
R =Nm N= = =289
m 1

198
199