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Control

and
Regulation
~ Nervous
system
Nervous system
Is a systems of neurones
To detect and respond to changes
i) Central nervous system
ii) Peripheral nervous system
Organisation of the nervous
system
Neurone
generate and transmit nerve impulses
i) sensory neurones (afferent neurones)
ii) Interneurones
iii) motor neurones (efferent neurones)
Structures of a neurone
Has large cell body (nucleus,cytoplasm and organelles)
Neuronal processes

i) Dendrites conduct nerve impulses


towards cell body
ii) Axon conduct nerve impulses away
from cell body
- divides at its end form synaptic
terminal
- contain synaptic vesicle filled with
neurotransmitter
In
peripheral nervous system
~ axon is covered by myelin sheath form
by Schwann cells
~ nodes of Ranvier small uncover parts of
myelinated axon between Schwann cell
~ myelin sheath - act as electrical insulator
-prevent movement of ions
through axon membrane

`
Formation of resting potential
Membrane potential electrical charge
difference across plasma membrane
Resting potential neurone is not
conducting an impulse ( - 70 mV)
- due to difference in concentration of K+
ions and Na+ ionson inside and outside
of cell
- inside the cell: K+ ions increase,Na+ ions
decrease
Resting potential difference is maintained by :
~ sodium-potassium pump
~ facilitated diffusion by non-gated ion channels
~ anions
Formation of action potential
Action potential nerve impulses
i) Depolarisation phase threshold
level
(-55mV)
ii) Repolarisation phase - action
potential
(+40mV)
iii) Hyperpolarisation phase
Characteristics of nerve
impulse
Refractory period after axon transmitted
an impulse,it cannot immediately transmit
another inpulse for a short period
absolute refractory period - axon
membrane cannot transmit another action
potential no matter how strong the stimulus
Relative refractory period - a new action
potential can be generated if the stimulus is
greater than the usual one
All or none law
~ if intensity of stimulus is less than
threshold level, no action potential can
be generated
~ size/ amplitudes of action potential is
constant
~ it is not affected by intensity of stimulus

Frequency of action potential


~ a strong stimulus produces fewer action
potential
Factors affecting the speed of
impulse transmission
Diameter of axon ~ larger diameter of axon
,higher speed of transmission
Presence or absence of myelin sheath

~sodium potassium channel found in


nodes of Ranvier
~exchange of ions occur on the nodes only
~action potential jump from one node of
Ranvier to another along axon
~known as saltatory conduction
Structure of synapse and role
of neurotransmitter
Synapse ~ small gap between neurone and
effector as well as between sensory
receptor and sensory neurone
Has synaptic cleft - 20 nm wide
Synaptic knob contains synaptic vesicles
Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitter
2 types of neurotransmitter:

a) norepinephrine
b) acetylcholine
Mechanism of transmission and
spread of impulse along axon
When one region of axon is stimulated
~ voltage-gated Na+ ion channels open
~ Na+ ions flow into axon
~ causes depolarisation of membrane
~ action potential produced
~ it propagated along axon as nerve
impulse
Localised current depolarises adjacent region
~ influx Na+ ions from extracellular fluid into one region of
axon creates a local circuit
~ increase in Na+ ions in axoplasm repels cations to move
the adjacent region which is more negatively charged
~ increases membrane potential in adjacent region and
opens up voltage-gated Na+ ions channel
~ Na+ ions diffuse into neurone and membrane in
adjacent region depolarised
~ when threshold level exceeded, a new action
potential is generated
after depolarisation phase,K+ ions diffuse out from

axon causing previous region become repolarised


resting potential re-established in previous region by

Na+/K+ pump and facilitated diffusion of ions through


non-gated channel ion channels
Mechanism of impulse
transmission across a synapse
Comparison between the impulse transmission
across the synapse and along the axon
Transmission of impulse Transmission of impulse
across the synapse along the axon
1.The transmission is 1.The transmission is
chemical in nature electrical in nature
2.Neurotransmitter involves 2. Only organic ions involve
during transmission during transmission
3.Neurotransmitter binds to 3. No such binding of chemical
specific receptor on the post molecules occur
synaptic membrane
4.The conduction of impulse 4.The conduction of impulse
involve two adjacent neurone travels along one neurone
5.Can be excitatory and 5. Only excitatory
inhibitory
6. Depolarisation is due to 6.Depolarisation is due to a
influx of greater inward diffusion of
Na+ ions only Na+ ions into the neurone
than an outward diffusion of
potassium ions
7.Several action potential can be 7. Action potential is an all or
summated to reach the threshold none-response
level

8.Recovery involves enzyme: 8.Recovery is due to efflux of K+


acetylcholinesterase ions and Na+/K+ pump

9.Speed of transmission is 9.Speed of transmission affected


affected by drugs : curare by diameter of axon and
presence of myelin sheath

10. Influx of Ca2+ ions when 10. No Ca2+ ions involve during
impulse reach synapse impulse transmission
Neuromuscular junction
Isa synapse found between motor
neurone and skeletal muscle fibres
Structure of sacromere
Role of sacroplasmic reticulum, calcium ions,
myofibrils and T tubules in muscle contraction
Mechanism of muscle contraction
based on sliding filament theory
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Nervous System
Feature Sympathetic system Parasympathetic
system
1. Origin of Emerges from thoracic Emerges from cranial
neurones and lumbar region of and sacral regions from
CNS CNS
2.Locationof Close to spinal cord Close to effector
ganglion
3.Length of Short preganglionic Long preganglionic
nerve fibre fibres fibres
Long postganglionic Short postganglionic
fibres fibres
4.Transmitter Noradrenaline Acetylcholine
substance
5.Effect on Activates the body for Prepares body for
target organ emergency and stress relaxation, dominant
condition during rest, control
routine body activities
6.General ~Increase body ~None
effect metabolism ~Decrease metabolic
~Increase metabolic level
level ~Decrease rhythmic
~Increase rhythmic activities
activities
7.Actions ~Increase pupil size ~Decrease pupil size
~Increase heart rate ~Decrease heart rate
~Increase sweating ~Decrease sweating
~Increase rate of ~Decrease rate of
respiration respiration
~Increase hair ~Decrease hair
angles angles
Mechanism of cocaine on
nervous system

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