ME2303

DESIGN OF MACHINE
ELEMENTS
III YEAR
V SEMESTER
B.E MECHANICAL
STEEL
DESIGNATION OF STEELS
STEELS DESIGNATION
COMPOSITION BASIS
 FITS AND TOLERANCES

1. Clearance fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so
selected that clearance between them always occur, as shown in Fig. 3.5
(a). It may be noted that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole
is entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft. In a clearance fit, the
difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of
the shaft is known as minimum clearance whereas the difference
between the maximum size of the
hole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance as
shown in Fig. 3.5 (a).
 2. Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits
for the mating parts are so selected that
interference between them always occur, as shown in Fig.
3.5 (b). It may be noted that in an interference fit, the
tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the tolerance
zone of the shaft. In an interference fit, the difference
between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum
size of the shaft is known as minimum interference,
whereas the difference between the minimum size
of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is called
maximum interference, as shown in Fig. 3.5 (b).
The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and
light drive fit.
3. Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits
for the mating parts are so selected that either a
clearance or interference may occur depending upon the
actual size of the mating parts, as shown in Fig. 3.5 (c). It
may be noted that in a transition fit, the tolerance zones
of hole and shaft overlap.
The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
LIMIT SYSTEM
The system of limits and fits comprises 18 grades of fundamental
tolerances i.e. grades of accuracy of manufacture and 25 types of
fundamental deviations indicated by letter symbols for both holes and
shafts (capital letter A to ZC for holes and small letters a to zc for shafts)
in diameter steps ranging from 1 to 500 mm.
A unilateral hole basis system is recommended but if necessary a
unilateral or bilateral shaft basis system may also be used.
The 18 tolerance grades are designated as IT 01, IT 0 and IT 1 to IT 16.
These are called standard tolerances.
Failure Theories

Stress in machine components should be

accurately computed.

Designer must understand material limits

to ensure a safe design.
Design Factor
Factor of Safety (N)

Expected Stress
N
Stress at Component Failure
Suitable values depend on inherent danger,
certainty of calculations, certainty of material
properties, etc.
Static Stresses - Brittle
Materials
Percent elongation < 5%

sut for parts in tension

N

suc for parts in compression
N


1 for
1 parts
2 with general stress

N sut suc
Example
The Gray Cast Iron (Grade 40) cylinder carries an
axial compressive load of 75,000 lbs and a torque
of 20,000 in lbs. Compute the resulting design
factor.

4.00
R0.25

R0.25 5.00
Static Stresses - Ductile
Materials
Percent elongation > 5%
Distortion Energy Theory
Define von Mises Stress

' 12 22 1 2
For nominal stress
sy
N
'
For localized stress
su
N
'
Static Stresses - Ductile
Materials
Percent elongation > 5%
Maximum Shear Stress Theory

For nominal stress

s ys sy
N
max 2 max
For localized stress
sus
N
max
Example
Specify a diameter for the middle portion of
the rod, if it is to be made from AISI 1040-hot
rolled steel.

450

5000 lbs
Example
For the seat support shown, specify a
standard structural tube to resist static loads
shown. The tube has properties similar to
AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel. Use a design
factor of 3.
400 lb

14 200 lb 20
Repeated Loads

alt
Stress

mean

Time
Example
The notched bar is machined from AISI 1020
steel. This bar is subjected to a load that
varies from 2000 lb to 3000 lb. Determine
the mean and alternating nominal stresses.

1.25
0.1 R

1 .75
Fatigue Strength
R.R. Moore Test

Motor

Alternating Stress, a

Endurance Strength, sn

103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles to Failure, N (log)
Endurance Strength
sn = Endurance strength
Listed in tables

If no information is available, use

sn 0.5 su (Steel)
sn 0.4 su (Aluminum)
Adjusted Endurance Strength
The data from the standard R.R. Moore
test is adjusted for a particular
application.

sn = Adjusted endurance strength

= (Cs) (Cm) (Cst) (CR) (sn)
Size and Stress Type Factors
Cs = Size Factor
D< 0.4 in Cs = 1.0
0.4 < D 2.0 in Cs = (D/0.3)-0.068
2.0 < D 10.0 in Cs = D-0.19
For rectangular sections, D=.808(h b) 1/2
Cst = Stress Type Factor
= 1.0 for bending
= 0.80 for axial tension
= 0.50 for torsion
Material and Reliability Factor
Cm = Material Factor
= 1.0 for wrought steel
= 0.80 for cast steel
= 0.70 for cast iron

CR = Reliability Factor
50% CR = 1.0
90% CR = 0.90
99% CR = 0.81
99.9% CR = 0.75
Example
The notched bar is machined from AISI 1020
steel. This bar is subjected to a load that
varies from 2000 lb to 3000 lb. Determine
the endurance limit of the material.

1.25
0.1 R

1 .75
Repeated Stresses - Ductile
Materials
Distortion Energy Theory
Define repeated von Mises Stress

'm 12m 22m 1m 2 m

'a 12a 22a 1a 2 a

Solderberg criterion

1 'm K t 'a

N sy s 'n
Repeated Stresses - Ductile
Materials
Maximum Shear Stress Theory

1 ( m ) max K t ( a ) max

N ssy s 'sn

ssy = 0.5 sy
ssn = 0.5 sn
Example
The notched bar is machined from AISI 1020
steel. This bar is subjected to a load that
varies from 2000 lb to 3000 lb. Comment on
the robustness of the design.

1.25
0.1 R

1 .75
Example
Comment on the robustness of a 1-1/4
round bar made from AISI 1213 C-D steel. It
carries a constant tensile load of 1500 lbs, a
bending load that varies from 0 to 800 lbs at
the senter of the 48 length and a constant
torque of 1200 in lbs.

48
Shafts
Connect power transmission components.

Inherently subjected to transverse loads

and torsion.
Shaft Forces
Gears
As before

Wt

Wr

T
Shaft Forces
Chains

Ftight
2T
Ftight
D
D

Fslack = 0
Shaft Forces
V-belts

Ftight
2.5T
Ftight
D
D

T T
Fslack
2D
Fslack
Shaft Forces
Flat belts

Ftight
3T
Ftight
D
D

T T
Fslack
D
Fslack
Material Properties
For steady load (torsion)
sys=.5sy

For fatique load ( bending)

sn=cs cR sn
cT = 1 (bending)
cm = 1 (wrought steel)
Stress Concentrations
Keyseats
Sled Runner Kt = 1.6

Profile Kt = 2.0

Woodruff Kt = 1.5
Stress Concentrations
Shoulders
Sharp, Bearing (r/d .03) Kt = 2.5
Round, Gear Bore (r/d .17) Kt = 1.5
Grooves
Retaining Rings Kt = 1.5

Try not to let Kts overlap.

Leave .10 - .15 between
Strength Analysis
Bending stress Kt M c Kt M

I S
D3
For round sections S
32

Torsion stress Tr T

J 2S

J I
For round sections 2
r c
Strength Analysis
Mohrs circle and Solderberg

K t M / s n ' T / s y
3
1
2 2

4
N S
Suggested Design Factors:
N=2 smooth operation

N=3 typical industrial operation

N=4 shock or impact loading

Minimum Acceptable
Diameter
The designer must size the shaft.
Solve for appropriate diameters

32 N 2
D K t M / s n ' T / s y
2 3
4
Example
Determine a suitable diameter for a shaft
made from AISI 1144 OQT 1000. It is
subjected to a reversing bending moment of
3000 ft lbs and a steady torque of 1800 ft
lbs. The shaft has a profile keyway.
Example
The shaft shown is part of a grain drying
system
At A, a 34 lb. propeller-type fan requires 12
hp when rotating at 475 rpm.
A flat belt pulley at D delivers 3.5 hp to a
screw conveyor handling the grain.
All power comes to the shaft through the v-
belt at C.

Using AISI 1144 cold drawn steel, determine the

minimum acceptable diameter at C.
Example

A B D E
C
12 10 10 4

150
Sheave C Sheave D
Shafts Accessories
Components used to securely mount power
transmitting elements on a shaft.

Axial

Rotational
Keys
Allow torque to be transferred from a shaft
to a power transmitting element (gear,
sprocket, sheave, etc.)
Key Design
Use a soft, low strength material
(ie, low carbon steel)
H

Standard size H=W=1/4

W D
L
Design length
based on strength
Standard Key Sizes
Shaft Dia. (in) W (in)
W H

T S

D H D2 W 2
S
2
D H D2 W 2
T .005 in.
2
Key Design
T 2T
F
Key Shear
D/2 D

Failure Theory
F 2T

Length
A DLW
sy s y LW
N
2 4TD
4TN
L
DWs y
Example
Specify a key for a gear (grade 40, gray cast
iron) to be mounted on a shaft (AISI 1144,
hot rolled) with a 2.00 in. diameter. The gear
transmits 21000 lb-in of torque and has a
hub length of 4 in.
Retaining Rings
Also known as snap rings
Provides a removable shoulder to lock
components on shafts or in bores.
Made of spring steel, with a high shear
strength.
Stamped, bent-wire, and spiral-wound.
Retaining Ring Selection
Based on shaft diameter & thrust force
Set Screws
Setscrews are fasteners that hold collars, pulleys, or gears on shafts.
They are categorized by drive type and point style.
Standard Set Screw Sizes
Set Screw Holding
Pins
A pin is placed in double shear
Holds torsion and axial loads

8T N D
d
D sy
d

Hole is made slightly smaller than the pin

(FN1 fit)
Example
Specify a pin for a gear (grade 40, gray cast
iron) to be mounted on a shaft (AISI 1144,
hot rolled) with a 2.00 in. diameter. The gear
transmits 21000 lb-in of torque and has a
hub length of 4 in.
Roll Pins
Easier disassembly
Collars
Creates a shoulder on shaft without
increasing stock size.
Held with either set screw or friction
(clamped)
Mechanical Couplings
Couplings are used to join two shafts
Rigid couplings are simple and low cost.
But they demand almost perfect alignment
of the mating shafts.

Misalignment causes undue forces and

accelerated wear on the shafts, coupling,
shaft bearings, or machine housing.
Mechanical Couplings
In connecting two shafts, misalignment is
the rule rather than the exception. It comes
from such sources as bearing wear,
structural deflection, thermal expansion, or
settling machine foundations.

When misalignment is expected, a flexible

coupling must be used.
Mechanical Couplings
Selection factors include:
Amount of torque (or power & speed)
Shaft Size
Misalignment tolerance
Fasteners, Powers Screws,
Connections
Helical thread screw was an important
invention.
Power Screw, transmit angular motion to liner
motion
Transmit large or produce large axial force
It is always desired to reduce number of screws
Definition of important
Terminologies

Major diameter d, Minor diameter dr Mean dia or pitch diameter dp

Lead l, distance the nut moves for one turn rotation
Single and Double threaded
screws

Double threaded screws are stronger and moves faster

 Screw Designations
United National
Standard UNS
International
Standard
Organization

Roots and crest can be either flat or round

Coarse thread Designated by UNC
Fine Thread UNF, is more resistance to
loosening, because of its small helix angle.
They are used when Vibration is present
Class of screw, defines its fit, Class 1 fits
have widest tolerances, Class 2 is the
most commonly used
Class three for very precision application
Example:1in-12 UNRF-2A-LH, A for Ext.
Thread and B for Internal, R root radius
Metric M10x1.5 10 diameter mm major
diameter,1.5 pitch
Some important Data for
UNC, UNF and M threads
Lets Look at the Table 8-1 on Page 398
Square and Acme Threads
are used for the power screw

Preferred pitch for Acme Thread

d, in 1/4 5/16 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/4
p,in 1/16 1/14 1/12 1/10 1/8 1/6 1/6 1/5 1/5
Mechanics of Power Screws
Used in design to change the angular motion to linear motion, Could
you recall recent failure of power screw leading to significant
causalities
What is the relationship
between the applied torque
on power screw and lifting
force F
 Torque for single flat thread
Fd m l fd m
TR ( )
2 d m fl
Fd m fd m l
TL ( )
2 d m fl
If the thread as an angle , the torque will be

Fd m l fd m sec
TR ( )
2 d m fl sec

Wedging action, it
increases friction
 Stresses in the power Screw

16T
Shear stress in the base
of the screw
d 3
F
Bearing stress B
d m nt p / 2
Bending stress at the root
6F
of the screw b
d r nt p
Shear stress in the thread
3V 3F
nt number of engaged
thread 2 A d r nt p
Loading to the fasteners and
their Failure considerations
Bolts are used to clamp two or more
parts
l

It causes pre tension in the bolt

Grip length
l is the total thickness of
partsl
d
and washers
t
 ld
h

t2 lt=L- ld

L effective grip= h+t2 if t2<d

=h=d/2 for t2 d
Failure of bolted or riveted
joints
 Type of Joints
Lap Joint (single Joint) But Joint
Example 1
Example 2
Example 2
Example 3
Weld
Weld under Bending
Springs
Flexible machine elements

Used to:
Exert force
Store energy
Spring Rate
Effective springs have a linear deflection curve.
Slope of the spring deflection curve is the rate

F
Force k
L
k
1
Deflection
Example
A compression spring with a
rate of 20 lb/in is loaded with
6 lbs and has a length of 1.5
in. Determine the unloaded
spring length (free length)
Geometry
Di
Dw
Dw

Do
L

Wire diameter, Dw (Standard gages)

Mean Diameter, Dm
Dm = Do - Dw
Spring Parameters
Spring index
Dm
C
C > 5 (manufacturing
Dw limits)
Active coils, Na
= N for plain ends
= N-1 for ground ends
= N-2 for closed ends
Deflection
Deflection for helical springs

8 FDm3 N a 8 FC 3 N a
4

GDw GDw

G = Shear modulus
Spring rate for helical springs
GDw
k 3
8C N a
Example
A helical compression spring is formed from
35 gage music wire with 10-1/4 turns and an
O.D. if 0.850 in. Its ends are squared. The
free length is 2 inches. Determine the force
to press the spring solid.
Stress Analysis
Spring wire is in torsion
V
T r 8K F C

Dw
2
J T
Wahl factor, K
Accounts for the
curvature of the wire
4C 1 .615
K F
4C 4 C
Example
A helical compression spring is formed from
35 gage music wire with 10-1/4 turns and an
O.D. if 0.850 in. Its made from A228 and
the ends are squared. The free length is 2
inches.
If the spring is repeatedly compressed to 1.3
in, do you expect problems?
Design Procedure
Select a material
Compute required spring rate
Estimate Dm based on size constraints
Determine required Dw (use K=1.2)
Select standard wire
Verify actual stress is satisfactory.
Compute number of coils required.
Example
Design a helical compression spring to exert
a force of 22 lbs when compressed to a
length of 1.75 in. When its length is 3.0 in, it
must exert 5 lb. The spring will be cycled
rapidly. Use ASTM A401 steel wire.
Rolling Element Bearings
Provides support for machine elements,
while allowing smooth motion.
=0.001 - 0.005
Types
Single-row Radial Roller
Radial Ball

Angular Angular
Contact Ball Roller
Types
Spherical Tapered Roller
Roller

Needle

Thrust
Ball Bearings
Stress Analysis
Contact Stress
c=300,000 is not unusual
Balls, rollers and races are made from
extremely high strength steel
ex. AISI 52100
sy = 260,000 psi
su=322,000 psi
Bearing Load/Life
Test (fatigue) data

Radial Load (lbs) Empirical relationship:

k
L2 P1

L1 P2

k=3.0 (ball)

k=3.33 (roller)

L10 Life (cycles)

Example
A bearing is mounted on a shaft rotating at
1200 rpm. The bearing has been tested to
have a L10 life of 300 hrs, when loaded with
500 lbs. Determine the expected L10 life, if
the load is increased to 700 lbs.
Manufacturers Data
Vendors publish the
Basic Dynamic Load
rating (C) of a bearing at
an L10 life of 1 million
cycles.
Bearing Selection
Determine the design life (in cycles)
Determine the design load
Pd = V R
V=1 for inner race rotation
V=1.2 for outer race rotation
Calculate the required basic dynamic load
1
Ld
k
Pd with
C a'dbearing
Select req 6 (C > Creqd) and a bore
10
that closely matches the shaft diameter.
Example
Specify suitable bearings for a shaft used in
an grain dryer. The shaft rotates at 1700
rpm. The required supporting loads at the
bearing are
RBx=589 lb
and the minimumRBy=164 lb
acceptable diameter is
2.16.
Mounting of Bearings
Shaft/bearing bore has a light interference
fit.
Housing/outer race has a slight clearance
fit.
Check manufacturers catalog

Match maximum permissible fillet radius.

Shaft or housing shoulders not to exceed
20% of diameter.
Mounted Bearings
Pillow block

Bearing is inserted into a cast housing, with

base or flange slots, which can be readily
attached to a machine base.
Bearings with Varying Loads
Compute a weighted average load based
on duty cycle.

Fm=equivalent load

F N
1
p p
Fi= load level for
Fm i i

N i


condition i
Ni= cycles for
condition i
p = exponent for
load/life
Example
Bearing 6211 is carrying the following load
cycle, while rotating at 1700 rpm.
Stage Load (lbs) Time
(min)
1 600 480
2 200 115
3 100 45
Compute the bearing L10 life in minutes.
Radial & Thrust Loads
Calculate an equivalent load
P=VXR +YT

T=thrust load
X factors depending
=
Y on bearing
Thrust factors, Y
Deep -groove, ball bearings

X = 0.56 for all values of Y

Example
A bearing is to carry a radial load of 650 lb
and a thrust load of 270 lb. Specify a suitable
single-row, deep-groove ball bearing if the
shaft rotates at 1150 rpm and the design life
is 20,000 hrs.