1

2
CLASSIFICATION

SEC B
 Index Properties and Classification
of Soils
Index properties are soil properties that
are used to classify soils. A soil property
is a good index property if it has the fol
characteristics:
Numerical value
Quick measurement
Measurement simple
Reproducible
Property significant i.e. correlates with
engineerin properties
Grain Size
 Smaller sieves are
numbered
according to the
number
Smaller of openings
sieves are numbered
per inchto the number of
according
openings per inch
# 10 sieve

10 openings per inch

(Das, 1998)
 Grain Size
Dry Analysis
Wet Analysis (Hydrometer test)
The most useful information from
hydrometer analysis is the % less
than .002mm CF
 Example 10

Grav
el
= 98-
62
= 36%

San
d
= 62-
8
=
Fine
54%
s
= 8%
Cu =
Soil A: D60 = 4.2 mm , D30 = 0.6 mm, 46.67
D = 0.09 mm C = 0.95
Atterbergs Limits 12

LL
PL
Plastic state of a soil expressed in terms of
water content reflects the ability of soil
composition to hold water.
Plasticity is a measure of
Mineralogy
Degree of dispersion or aggregation
Organic content
Chemistry of pore fluid
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
13

ASTM D 2487 is based on USCS.

USCS was developed by A.Casagrande in 1942 for US
Army.
USCS is the most common soil classification system
among geotechnical engineers.
USCS considers grain size distribution and
plasticity of fines (passing No. 40 sieve).
In this system, soil falls within one of three major
categories:
coarse-grained soils
fine-grained soils
highly organic soils
Coarse grained soil if P200 < 50%.
Fine grained soil if P200 50%.
Naming convention 14

A typical USCS classification would be:

Group Symbol SM Silty sand with gravel
Group Name
Fine-grained Soil
First Letter Second Letter Example
M Silt L Low plastic ML, MH
C Clay H High plastic CL, CH
O Organic OL, OH
Coarse-grained Soil
First Letter Second Letter Example
S Sand P Poorly graded SP, SW, SM, SC
G Gravel W Well graded GP, GW, GM, GC
M Silty
C Clayey
Terminology 15

Clay: Soil passing No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve that

exhibits plasticity. It has PI 4 and plot of PI and LL
falls on or above A line.
Silt: Soil passing a No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve that
is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and that
exhibits little or no strength when air dry. It has PI <
4 or the plot of PI versus LL falls below the A line.
Sand: Particles of rock that will pass No. 4 (4.75
mm) sieve and retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm)
sieve.
Gravel: Particles of rock that will pass 3 in. (76.2
mm) sieve and retained on No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
Terminology (contd.) 16

Organic clay: A clay with sufficient organic content

to influence the soil properties. For organic clay, its
liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75 %
of its liquid limit value before oven drying.
Organic silt: A silt with sufficient organic content
to influence the soil properties. Its liquid limit value
after oven drying is less than 75 % of its liquid limit
value before oven drying.
Peat: A soil composed of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition usually with an
organic odor, a dark-brown to black color, a spongy
consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to
amorphous.
Terminology (contd.) 17

W Well Graded: Good representation of all

particle sizes from largest to smallest.
P Poorly Graded: Uniform, most particles
about the same size; or skip (or gap) gradation,
absence of one or more intermediate sizes.
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and Coefficient
of curvature (Cc) are defined as below:
2
D60 D30
Cu , Cc
D10 D60 D10
where D60, D30, D10 are diameter of 60%, 30%
and 10% passing on gradation curve,
respectively.
Particle size definition 18

System based only on particles smaller than 3-

inches.
Boulders are > 12-inch
Cobbles are 3-inch to 12-inch
Gravels are between No. 4 sieve and 3-inch
Sands are between No. 200 sieve and No. 4 sieve
Fines are smaller than No. 200 sieve
No. 200 No. 4 3-in.
fines sand gravel cobbles

.075 mm 4.75 mm 75 mm
USCS - Particle size definition
19
Organic designation 20

A liquid limit test is performed on:

One sample that is only air-dried.

On another that is oven-dried prior to testing.

The liquid limit values are compared by computing the ratio

of the 2 values.

If the ratio of the oven-dried soils LL to the air-dry

soils LL values is < 0.75, the soil is organic by
definition.
If the air-dry LL is 50 or more, it is a HIGH liquid limit.
If the air-dry LL is less than 50, the soil has a LOW
liquid limit value.
Additional evaluation of organic 21

soils
Ignition test. ASTM D2974
Soil sample heated in muffle furnace set at
either 440 oC or 750 oC and weight loss
measured.
Peat Classification D4427
 D10, D30, and D60 22

Determining D10, D30, and D60

60
Percent passing

30

10
D10 D30 D60

Grain Diameter
Cu and Cc 23

D60
Cu Coefficient of Uniformity
D10 High Values Indicate
Well-Graded Soil

D302 Coefficient of Curvature

Cc Values Between 1-3
D60 D10 Indicate Well-Graded
Soil

Also called coefficient of gradation,

Cz
Clean sands and gravels 25

Clean Well Graded Sands and Gravels

have less than 5 % fines and a wide
range of particle sizes that are equally
distributed.
Percent passing

Well graded

Grain Diameter
Poorly graded sands and gravels 26

Either Mostly
Or gap
One-Size graded
Particle
Percent passing

Poorly
graded
Gap graded

Grain Diameter Grain Diameter

Clean, well/poorly graded definitions
27

Sands
less than 5 % fines
Cu > 6 If this criteria is
Cc = 1 to 3 satisfied then WELL
GRADED otherwise
Gravels POORLY GRADED
less than 5 % fines
Cu > 4 If this criteria is
Cc = 1 to 3 satisfied then WELL
GRADED otherwise
POORLY GRADED
28
Flow chart coarse and fine grained
29

Measure passing
No. 200 sieve

50% or more Less than

passes 50% passes
No. 200 No.
sieve 200 sieve

Fine-grained Coarse-
soils grained soils
Flow chart organic soils 30

Determine
whether
organic or not

Ratio of Ratio of
oven-dry to oven-dry to
air-dry LL air-dry LL
value is value is
< 0.75 > 0.75
Organic Inorganic
soils soils
Air-dry LL is Air-dry LL is Classify by
< 50 50 plotting LL
and PI on
OL OH Plasticity
chart
Flow chart coarse grained 31

Less than 50%

pass No. 200
sieve

Less than 5% From 5% to 12% More than 12%

pass pass No. 200 pass No. 200
No. 200 sieve sieve sieve

Clean coarse Dual coarse Dirty coarse

grained grained grained
Classification of fine-grained soils 32

The Unified Soil Classification System uses the

term fines to describe everything that passes
through a No. 200 sieve (<0.075 mm).
No attempt to distinguish between silts and clays
in terms of particles sizes since the biggest
difference between silt and clay is not their particle
sizes, but their physical and chemical structures.
The soil consistency is used as a practical and an
inexpensive way to distinguish between silts and
clays.
Plasticity property is important because it
describes the response of a soil to change in
moisture content.
Plasticity 33

Water Content significantly affects

properties of Silty and Clayey soils (unlike
sand and gravel).
Strength decreases as water content increases
Soils swell-up when water content increases
Fine-grained soils at very high water content
possess properties similar to liquids
As the water content is reduced, the volume of
the soil decreases and the soils become plastic
If the water content is further reduced, the soil
becomes semi-solid when the volume does not
change
 Flow chart fine grained 34

50% or more
pass No. 200
sieve

LL < 50 LL 50

PI > 7 4 PI 7 PI < 7 PI plots PI plots

and and plots and on or below
plots on on or plots above A-line
or above below A-line
above A-line A-line
A-line
CL CL-ML ML CH MH
 Are 50% of particles >
35
0.075 mm?No
Yes

Soil is coarse- Soil is fine-

grained grained
Is gravel fraction > sand Coarse-grained
Yesfraction?
No
soil
Soil is gravel, First Soil is sand, First
letter is G letter is S
classification
Is clay + silt fraction
Is clay
> < Between 5% and Yes
fraction > silt
12% ? 5% ? 12%?
Yes Yes fraction?
Yes No
Is clay fraction > silt
fraction?
Yes No If first letter is If first letter is
Plastic clay Non-plastic silty G G
fines fines Cu 4 and 1Cc Cu 4 and 1Cc
Second letter Second letter M 3, 3,
IfCfirst letter is G, Cu 4 and 1Cc then
If firstGW-GC,
letter is then
If firstGW-GM,
letter is
3, Gelse GP-GC G else GP-GM
then
If firstGW otherwise
letter GP
is S, Cu 6 and 1Cc Cu 4 and 1Cc Cu 4 and 1Cc
3, 3, 3,
 Are 50% of particles < 36
0.075 mm?No
Yes

Soil is fine- Soil is coarse-

grained grained
LL (oven-dried)
Is < Fine-grained
0.75
LL (not dried)
Yes No
soil
classification
Soil is Is clay fraction > silt
organic, fraction?
First letter is Yes No
O
Soil is clay, Soil is silt,
first letter is first letter is
C M
Is LL > 50%

Yes No

Plasticity is Plasticity is
high, second low, second
letter is H letter is L
Procedure for classification of soils 37

From sieve analysis and the grain-size distribution curve

determine the percent passing as the following:
> 3 inch: Cobble or Boulders
3 to No. 4 (76.2 ~ 4.75 mm): Gravel
No. 4 to No. 200 (4.75 ~ 0.075 mm): Sand
< No. 200 (0.075 mm): Fines
First, find % passing No. 200. If (5%) or more of soil passes
No. 200 sieve, then conduct Atterberg Limits test (LL & PL).
If the soil is fine-grained ( 50% passes No. 200 sieve),
follow the guidelines for fine-grained soils.
If the soil is coarse-grained (<50% passes No. 200 sieve),
follow the guidelines for coarse-grained soils.
Obtain the following data:
Find % Gravel & Sand
Calculate Cu & Cc
Calculate LL, PL and PI
Classification of fine-grained soils 38

The Unified Soil Classification System uses the

term fines to describe everything that passes
through a No. 200 sieve (<0.075 mm).
No attempt to distinguish between silts and clays
in terms of particles sizes since the biggest
difference between silt and clay is not their particle
sizes, but their physical and chemical structures.
The soil consistency is used as a practical and an
inexpensive way to distinguish between silts and
clays.
Plasticity property is important because it
describes the response of a soil to change in
moisture content.
Plasticity 39

Water Content significantly affects

properties of Silty and Clayey soils (unlike
sand and gravel).
Strength decreases as water content increases
Soils swell-up when water content increases
Fine-grained soils at very high water content
possess properties similar to liquids
As the water content is reduced, the volume of
the soil decreases and the soils become plastic
If the water content is further reduced, the soil
becomes semi-solid when the volume does not
change
Attreberg Limits 40

Atterberg limits are important to describe the

consistency of fine-grained soils.
The knowledge of the soil consistency is
important in defining or classifying a soil type or
predicting soil performance when used as a
construction material.
A fine-grained soil usually exists with its particles
surrounded by water.
The amount of water in the soil determines its
state or consistency.
Four states are used to describe the soil
consistency;
solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
Attreberg Limits 41

Wetting

Solid
Solid Semi Plastic Liquid
Volume, v or e

State
Solid

S = 100 %

vf

SL PL LL
PI

Drying Water content, w %

 Attreberg Limits 42

Fluid soil-water
mixture Liquid State
Liquid Limit, LL
Increasing water

Plastic State
content

Plastic Limit, PL
Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Dry Soil
Solid State
Liquid Limit (LL) 43

In the lab, the LL is defined as the

moisture content (%) required to close a 2-
mm wide groove in a soil pat a distance of
0.5 in along the bottom of the groove after
25 blows.

Standard: ASTM D 4318.

Soil sample size: 150g passing No. 40

sieve.

Equipment: Casagrande liquid limit device.

44
Liquid Limit (Procedure) 45

150g air dry soil passing No. 40 sieve.

Add 20% of water - mix thoroughly.
Place a small sample of soil in LL device (deepest
part about 8-10 mm).
Cut a groove (2mm at the base).
Run the device, count the number of blows, N.
Stop when the groove in the soil close through a
distance of 0.5 inch.
Take a sample and find the moisture content.
Run the test three times [N~(10-20), N~(20-30)
and N~(35-45)] and Plot number of blows vs
moisture content and determine the liquid limit (LL)
(moisture content at 25 blows)
Liquid Limit 46
Plastic Limit 47

The moisture content (%) at which the soil when rolled

into threads of 3.2mm (1/8 in) in diameter, will crumble.
Plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.
It is the dividing line between the plastic and semisolid
states.
Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid
limit and plastic limit of a soil.

Fluid soil-water
mixture Liquid State
Liquid Limit, LL
Increasing water

Plastic State
Plastic Limit, PL
content

Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State
Dry Soil
Plastic Limit (Procedure) 48

Take 20g of soil passing No. 40 sieve into a

dish.
Add water and mix thoroughly.
Prepare several ellipsoidal-shaped soil
masses by quizzing the soil with your hand.
Put the soil in rolling device, and roll the soil
until the thread reaches 1/8 inch.
Continue rolling until the thread crumbles
into several pieces.
Determine the moisture content of about 6g
of the crumbled soil.
Plastic Limit 49
Atterberg Limits 50

Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture

content at which no further volume change occurs
with further reduction in moisture content (SL
represents the amount of water required to fully
saturate the soil, i.e., S = 100%).

Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture

content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic
material.

Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture

content at which soil begins to behave as a liquid
material and begins to flow (LL of a fine-grained
soil gives the moisture content at which the shear
strength of the soil is approximately 2.5kN/m 2).
Plasticity chart 51
52
A. Casagrande s Observations 53

Soils from the same locality, same horizon

or similar geological history plotted along
either a fairly straight line or a narrow
band. Furthermore, all of the lines or
bands were approximately parallel to each
other.
At a given LL, with increasing PI, cohesive
characteristics increase whereas
permeability decrease.
At a given PI, with increasing LL, the
plasticity of clays and compressibility of
silts increased.
Activity 55
Activity 56

Soil type Activity, A

Inactive clays A < 0.75
Normal clays 0.75 < A < 1.25
Active clays A >1.25
 57
Fine
Grain
ed
Soils

FIG. 1 Flow chart for Classifying Fine-Grained Soil (50% or More Passes No. 200 Sieve)
 Fine grained organic soils 58

Group Symbol Group Name

FIG. 2 Flow chart for Classifying Organic Fine-Grained Soil (50% or More Passes No.
200 Sieve)
 Coarse Grained 59

Soils

FIG. 3 Flow chart for Classifying Coarse-Grained Soils (50% or More Retained on No.
Plasticity chart 65
 66

High
plasticity/compressibili
ty
Medium
plasticity/
compressibility
Low
plasticity/
compressibil
ity
 67

Cohesionless
soil

l ay
C
c
ani
r g Organic
o
In clays

Silt
68
 Example 69

Grav
el
= 98-
62
= 36%

San
d
= 62-
8
=
Fine
54%
s
= 8%
Cu =
Soil A: D60 = 4.2 mm , D30 = 0.6 mm, 46.67
D = 0.09 mm C = 0.95
Example 70

LL = 42
PL = 31
PI = 42-31 = 11

ML
Gravel = 36%
71
Sand = 54%
Fines = 8%
Cu = 46.7
Cc = 0.95

LL = 42
PL = 31 ML
PI = 42-31 = 11

Soil A is classified as [SW-SM: well-graded sand

with Coarse-Grained
FIG. 3 Flow chart for Classifying silt and gravel]
Soils (50% or More Retained on No.
USCS Example, Soil A 72

Soil A
Gravel = 100 80 = 20%
Sand = 80 52 = 28%
Fines = 52% > 50% => Fine-grained soil
USCS Example, Soil A 73

LL = 30
PI = 8

CL
 74

CL Sandy lean clay with

gravel
Soil A
Gravel =
20%
Sand =
28%
Fines =
AASHTO Classification - 75

Introduction
AASTO system of soil classification was developed
in 1929 by Hogentogler and Terzaghi.
It provides general rating of the soil as sub-grade
for road construction.
It considers grain size distribution and plasticity of
fines.
AASHTO system uses both grain-size distribution
and Atterberg limits to assign a group classification
and group index.
The group classification ranges from A-1 (best) to
A-8 (worst).
Highly organic soils (muck and peat) are placed
under group A-8.
Introduction (contd.) 76

Group index values near 0 indicate good soils,

while values of 20 or more indicate very poor
soils.
Soils classified under group A-1, A-2 and A-3 are
granular materials of which 35% pass
through the No. 200 sieve.
Soils of which > 35% of pass through the No. 200
sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6
and A-7. these are mostly silt and clay type
materials.
 AASHTO Definition of Gravel,77 Sand,
and Silt-Clay

Boulders above 75 mm
Gravel 75mm to #10 sieve (2.0mm)
Coarse Sand #10 to #40 (0.425mm)
Fine Sand #40 to #200 (0.075mm)
Silt-Clay passing #200 sieve
AASHTO & USCS 78
AASHTO Classification 82

Grain size
Gravel: fraction passing 3 in. (75 mm) sieve and
retained on the No. 10 (2 mm) sieve.
Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2 mm) sieve and
retained on the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
Silt and Clay: fraction passing the No. 200 sieve.

Plasticity: The term is applied when the fine

fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or
less. The term clayey is applied when the fine
fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
If cobbles or boulders (>75mm) are encountered,
they are excluded from the portion of soil sample
from which classification is made. However, the
percentage is recorded.
 Granular materials 83

Granular materials ( 35% of total sample passing

No. 200)

Note: To classify a soil, apply test data from left to right in

the above table. By process of elimination, the first group
from left into which the test data fit is the correct
 Silt-clay materials 84

Silt-clay materials (> 35% of total sample passing

No. 200)

Note: To classify a soil, apply test data from left to right in

the above table. By process of elimination, the first group
from left into which the test data fit is the correct
 Plasticity Chart 85

Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-
5, A-6, and A-7
Group Index 86

Group index (GI) is calculated using the

following empirical formula:
GI F200 35 0.2 0.005 LL 40 0.01 F200 15 PI 10

Partial GI determined Partial GI determined

from LL from PI
where
F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200
sieve
LL = Liquid limit, and PI = Plasticity index
GI is taken as zero, if the equation yields negative
value.
Calculated value of GI is rounded off to nearest whole
number (for example, GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI =
3.5 is rounded off to 4).
Group Index 87

There is no upper limit for the group index.

The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a,
A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always zero.
When calculating the GI for soils that belong to
groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial GI for PI, or
the following formula:
GI 0.01 F200 15 PI 10

In general, the quality of performance of soil as a

subgrade material is inversely proportional to the
GI.
Group index is shown in parentheses after the
group symbol as A-2-6(3), A-6(12), A-7-5(17), etc.
AASHTO - Examples 88

P10 = 80% P40 = 52% P200 = 20% Given data

obtained from
LL = 35 PL = 20 PI = 15 gradation
curve

Since, P200 <35%, coarse grained soil

Since, P10 > 50, not A-1-a
Since, P40 > 50, not A-1-b
Since, P200 > 10, not A-3
So must be A-2 soil , use plasticity chart
A-2-6 soil
GI 0.01 F200 15 PI 10 Use this formula
for A-2-6 and A-
GI 0.01 20 1515 10 0.25 0 2-7

Therefore, soil is A-2-6 (0)

 89

A-2-6 soil
90
91
92