New

Discoveries
in the Area
of Space
 BIG BANG THEORY
TheBig Bangtheoryis the prevailingcosmologicalmodelfor
theuniversefrom theearliest known periodsthrough its
subsequent large-scale evolution.The model accounts for the fact
that the universeexpandedfrom a very high density and high
temperature state,and offers a comprehensive explanation for a
broad range of phenomena, including the abundance oflight
elements, thecosmic microwave background,large scale
structureandHubble's Law.If the known laws of physics are
extrapolated beyond where they have been verified, there is
asingularity. Some estimates place this moment at
approximately 13.8billionyears ago, which is thus considered
theage of the universe.After the initial expansion, the universe
cooled sufficiently to allow the formation ofsubatomic particles,
and later simpleatoms. Giant clouds of these primordial elements
later coalesced throughgravityto formstarsandgalaxies.
 GALAXIES
Agalaxyis agravitationallybound system
ofstars,stellar remnants,interstellar gas,dust,
anddark matter.The word galaxy is derived from
theGreekgalaxias(), literally "milky", a
reference to theMilky Way. Galaxies range in size
fromdwarfswith just a few thousand (103) stars to
giants with one hundredtrillion(1014) stars,each
orbiting its galaxy'scenter of mass. Galaxies are
categorized according to their visual morphology
aselliptical,spiralandirregular.Many galaxies are
thought to haveblack holesat theiractive centers. The
Milky Way's central black hole, known asSagittarius A
*, has a mass four million times greater than theSun.
 NEBULA
Astarisbornwhen atoms of light elements are
squeezed under enough pressure for their nuclei to
undergo fusion. All stars are the result of a balance of
forces: the force of gravity compresses atoms in
interstellar gas until the fusion reactions begin. In the
dense nebulae wherestarsare produced, much of the
hydrogen is in the molecular (H2) form, so these nebulae
are called molecular clouds. This photograph shows the
Orion Nebula, an interstellar cloud in whichstarsystems -
and possibly planets - are forming. Our own solar system
presumably formed as gravity caused the collapse of a
similar large cloud of gas. The piece of cloud that formed
our Solar System is known as the solar nebula.
 PLANETS
The termplanetis ancient, with ties to history,
science,mythology, and religion. Several
planets in theSolar Systemcan be seen with
the naked eye. These were regarded by many
early cultures as divine, or as emissaries
ofdeities. As scientific knowledge advanced,
human perception of the planets changed,
incorporating a number of disparate objects. In
2006, theInternational Astronomical Union(IAU)
officially adopted a resolutiondefining planets
within the Solar System. Some extraordinary
planets are: Kepler 22b,Planet Nine.
 ASTEROIDS
Asteroidsareminor planets, especially those of
theinner Solar System. The larger ones have also
been calledplanetoids. These terms have historically
been applied to any astronomical object orbiting
theSunthat did not show the disc of a planet and was
not observed to have the characteristics of an
activecomet. Asminor planets in the outer Solar
Systemwere discovered and found to have volatile-
based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they
were often distinguished from asteroids of theasteroid
belt.In this article, the term "asteroid" refers to the
minor planets of the inner Solar System including
those co-orbital withJupiter.
 BLACKHOLE
Ablack holeis a region ofspace timeexhibiting such
stronggravitationaleffects that nothingincludingparticlesand
electromagnetic radiationsuch as lightcan escape from inside
it.The theory ofgeneral relativitypredicts that a sufficiently
compactmasscan deformspace timeto form a black hole.The
boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called
theevent horizon. Although crossing the event horizon has
enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it, it appears to
have no locally detectable features. In many ways a black hole acts
like an idealblack body, as it reflects no light.Moreover,quantum
field theory in curved space timepredicts that event horizons
emitHawking radiation, withthe same spectrumas a black body of
a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature
is on the order of billionths of a kelvin forblack holes of stellar
mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.
 MOON
Anatural satellite, ormoonis acelestial bodythatorbitsanother
celestial body of greater mass (e.g. aplanet,star, ordwarf planet), called
itsprimary.For example, theMoon is a natural satellite ofEarth, and Earth
is a natural satellite of theSun.
In theSolar Systemthere are 173 known natural satelliteswhich orbit
within 6 planetarysatellite systems. In addition, several other objects are
known to have satellites, including threeIAU-listed dwarf
planets:Pluto,Haumea, andEris.As of January 2012, over 200minor-
planet moonshave been discovered.There are 76 known objects in the
asteroid beltwith satellites (five with two each), fourJupiter trojans,
39near-Earth objects(two with two satellites each), and 14Mars-
crossers.There are also 84 known natural satellites oftrans-Neptunian
objects.Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within
therings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish
orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and
although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet
been confirmed.
 STARS
Astaris a luminous sphere ofplasmaheld together by its
owngravity. The nearest star toEarthis theSun. Many
other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during
the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points
in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth.
Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped
intoconstellationsandasterisms, the brightest of which
gained proper names. Astronomers have assembledstar
cataloguesthat identify the known stars and provide
standardizedstellar designations. However, most of the
stars in theUniverse, including all stars outside ourgalaxy,
theMilky Way, are invisible to the naked eye from Earth.
Indeed, most are invisible from Earth even through the most
powerfultelescopes.
 BIG CRUNCH THEORY
TheBig Crunchis one possible scenario for
theultimate fate of the universe, in which
themetric expansion of spaceeventually
reverses and the universe recollapses,
ultimately ending as ablack
holesingularityor causing a reformation of
the universe starting with another big bang.
Sudden singularities and crunch or rip
singularities at late times occur only for
hypothetical matter with implausible physical
properties.
 Latest discoveries
NASA's Voyager 1 reaches interstellar space -
After almost 35 years of traveling, scientists reported this
year that NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft reached interstellar
space in August 2012. Because the solar system doesn't
contain helpful "You Are Here" signs to mark its boundary,
scientists relied on a powerful solar eruption to determine the
density of the molecules in space around the craft. With the
transition into interstellar space, Voyager 1 became the first
craft to leave the solar system behind, making it a significant
milestone in the annals of space exploration. It is currently
about 11.66 billion miles (18.76 billion km) from the sun.
 Extraterrestrial neutrinos found in Antarctica
Physicists in Antarctica found the first evidence of cosmic
rays from outside the solar system. The energetic rays
themselves are difficult to detect, so scientists rely on the
discovery of neutrinos produced as the cosmic rays interact
with their surroundings. Of the billions of neutrinos that pass
through a square centimeter of Earth each second, only a few
actually interact with matter.
But using the Ice Cube Neutrino Observatory, an instrument
buried in a cubic kilometer of ice beneath the South Pole,
physicists were able to detect twoneutrino events that
originated beyond the solar system, the first definitive
detections since 1987 (and events a million times more
powerful than their predecessor). Although the event was too
small to pinpoint the origin of the cosmic rays suspects
include supernovas, gamma ray bursts, and black holes
the detection opened the door to a greater understanding of
some of the powerful events in the universe.
 Ancient Mars could have supported life
Only seven months after its spectacular landing on Mars,
NASA's Curiosity rover discovered signs thatancient Mars
could have supported lifein the form of primitive microbes.
The determination was made after instruments on the rover
identified some of the key ingredients necessary for life in
the rocks of Mars. Curiosity isn't searching for current life
on Mars, only for signs of the Red Planet's potentially
habitable environments in the past. In December, the
Curiosity team announced evidence of a freshwater Martian
lake near the planet's equator that could have supported
life for extended periods of time. The lake likely existed
about 3.7 billion years ago, far more recently than scientists
previously thoughthabitable environments existed on the
Mars.
More recently, scientists have used NASA's Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter to determine that dark seasonal
streaks near the equator could indicate the presence today
of flowing salt water on Mars during the planet's warmer
months. Previous signs of existing flowing water on the