EE-194-PLA

Introduction to Plasma
Engineering

Part 1: Plasma Technology

Part 2: Vacuum Basics
Part 3: Plasma Overview

Professor Jeff Hopwood

ECE Dept., Tufts University
 Part 1:
Basic Plasma Technology
Plasma: an ionized gas consisting of
atoms, electrons, ions, molecules,
molecular fragments, and electronically
excited species (informal definition)

www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/
 Plasma:
the fourth state of matter
plasma
(electrons+ions) energy

gas
(steam)
solid
(ice)
energy

energy
liquid
(water)
 DC Plasma
(AC Fluorescent Lampwhy AC?)

sputtering Argon + Mercury @ ~0.01 atm.

- -
+- -
+- -
- + - + - +- - +- -
- +
+

Argon
- Electron
+ Argon ion

lamp endcap
Also, this is the heart of high
powered gas lasers.
Fluorescent Lamp Spectrum
The strong peaks of light emission are due to excited Hg:
Hg + e- (hot) Hg* + e- (cold) Hg + light + e-
photon

http://en.wikipedia.org http://www.chemcool.com
Integrated Circuit Fabrication
and Plasma Technology
Microfabrication
deposit-pattern-etch-repeat

(a)
(e)

(b)
(f)

(c)
(g)

Copper metallization
(d) on the PowerPC chip

(h)
 Basic Plasma Technology
Sputtering Magnetron

DC M a g n e tro n
Pulsed
RF S N S

N
Target S N

Substrate

to pump
Basic Plasma Technology
Capacitively Coupled Plasma
0.4 60 MHz

Hopwood and Mantei, JVST A21, S139 (2003)

 Plasma Etching

Cl2 Cl2 SiCl2

Cl+ SiCl2
Cl

Simplified anisotropic etching S

Cl2 + e- Cl + Cl+ + 2e-
Si(s) + 2Cl(g)+ ion energy SiCl2(g)
 Anisotropy
is due to directional ion bombardment
Dry or Plasma Etching Wet Etching (in acid)

Cl+
Cl

wafer wafer

Si(s) + 2Cl(g)+ ion energy SiCl2(g) In wet chemistry, the chemical

reaction occurs on all surfaces at the
The directional ion energy drives the same rate. Very small features can
chemical reaction only at the bottom not be microfabricated since they
of the microscopic feature. eventually overlap each other.
 Trenches: etched and filled with copper

Jason M. Blackburn, David P. Long, Albertina Cabaas, James J. Watkins

Science 5 October 2001: Vol. 294. no. 5540, pp. 141 - 145
 Plasma Deposition

SiH4 SiH4 SiHX+H2

SiH H2
SiH2

S
Simplified plasma deposition
SiH4 + e- SiH3 + H + e-
SiH3 + e- SiH2 + H + e-
SiH2 + e- SiH + H + e-
SiH + e- Si + H + e-
SiHx+ surface+ ion energy Si (s) + Hx(g)
 Basic Plasma Technology
Electron Cyclotron Resonance Plasma: Etch and Deposition

Hopwood and Mantei, JVST A21, S139 (2003)

Basic Plasma Technology
Inductively Coupled Plasma: Etch and Deposition

0.4 13.56 MHz

Hopwood and Mantei, JVST A21, S139 (2003)

 Other applications:
Xenon Ion Propulsion
Deep Space 1 encounter with Comet Borrelly

http://nmp.nasa.gov/ds1/images.html
 Other Applications :
Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
Structure

blue
red

green
From S.S. Yang, et al, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 31, 596 (2003).
 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
Basic Operation
initiate breakdown sustain plasma
(~ 300 volts) (~ 180 volts)
Sustain Electrode surface
++++

++++++

Bus Electrode

h ~ 200 m
l ~ 400 m
d ~ 60 m

From S.S. Yang, et al, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 31, 596 (2003).
 Part 2:
Basic Vacuum Concepts
 Goals

To review basic vacuum technology

Pressure, pumps, gauges
To review gas flow and conductance
To understand the flux of vapor phase
material to a substrate
To understand mean free path,
 Vacuum (units) Typical High
Pressure Plasma

1.3x10-9 1.3x10-6 1.3x10-3 1 atm.

1 Torr =
1 mm-Hg
1x10-6 Torr 1 mTorr 1 Torr 760 Torr

1 Pascal =
1 N/m2
0.133x10-3 Pa 0.133 Pa 133 Pa 101,333 Pa

Typical Low Pressure

Plasma Processing
Ultrahigh Vacuum High Vacuum Rough Vacuum
 Rough Vacuum
Mechanical Pumps typically create a base
pressure of 1-10 mTorr or 0.13-1.3 Pa

Warning:
Certain process gases
are incompatible with Rotary Vane Pump
pump fluids and pose (Campbell)
severe safety risks!
 High Vacuum Pumping
Cryopumps condense gases on cold
surfaces to produce vacuum
Typically there are three cold surfaces:
(1) Inlet array condenses water and
hydrocarbons (60-100 Kelvin)
(2) Condensing array pumps argon,
nitrogen and most other gases (10-20
K)
(3) Adsorption is needed to trap helium,
hydrogen and neon in activated carbon (Campbell)
at 10-12 K. These gases are pumped
very slowly!

Warning: all pumped gases are trapped inside the pump, so explosive, toxic
and corrosive gases are not recommended. No mech. pump is needed until regen.

adapted from www.helixtechnology.com

High Vacuum Pumping
Turbomolecular Pump
Process chamber
High rotation speed turbine
imparts momentum to gas atoms
Inlet pressures: <10 mTorr
Foreline pressure: < 1 Torr
Requires a rough pump
Good choice for toxic and
explosive gases

foreline -gases are not trapped in pump

All gases are pumped at approx.
the same rate
Pumping Speeds:
20 2000 liters per sec
adapted from Lesker.com
 High Vacuum Pumping
Process chamber Diffusion Pump

The process gas is entrained by the

downward flow of vaporized pumping
fluid.
Water- Foreline
cooled -to mech pump Benefits:
walls Low cost, reliable, and rugged.
High pumping speed: ~ 2000 l/s

Caution:
The process chamber will be
contaminated by pumping fluid.
A cold trap must be used between the
diffusion pump and the process chamber.

Not recommended for clean processes.

Heater/Pumping Fluid

adapted from Lesker.com

 Flow Rate
Typically gas flows are cited in units of standard cubic
centimeters per minute (sccm) or standard liters per
minute (slm)

Standard refers to T=273K, P = 1 atm.

Example:
Process gas flow of 50 sccm at 5 mTorr (@300K) requires

50 cm-3min-1(760Torr/5x10-3Torr)(300/273)(1min/60sec)(1/103)
= 140 liters/sec of pumping speed at the chamber pump port
 Conductance Limitation
50 sccm
Conductance depends on
geometry and pressure (use
tabulated data)
5 mTorr

140 l/s

= Q/(P1 P2)

Fixed Throughput, Q:
Q = 0.005 Torr x 140 l/s = 0.7 Torr-l/s

> 140 l/s since P2<P1

Corifice = (a2)<v> l/s

Ctube = a2 (2a<v>/3L)
if mean free path >> a, L
(see Mahan, 2000)
 Pressure Measurement
Convectron Gauge:
Initial pumpdown from
1 atm, and as a
foreline monitor
Thermal Conductivity of Gas

Baratron:
True Pressure
(diaphragm displacement) Insensitive to gas
composition,
Good choice for
process pressures
Ionization of Gas

Ion Gauge:
Sensitive to gas
composition, but
RGA: a good choice for
A simple mass base pressures
spectrometer
Vacuum Gauge Selection adapted from Lesker.com
 Residual Gas Analysis
Low pressure systems are
dominated by water vapor as
seen in this RGA of a chamber
backfilled with 4x10-5 torr of
argon
Why? H2O is a polar molecule
that is difficult to pump from the
walls --> bake-out the chamber
Leak?

Source: Pfeiffer vacuum products

 Gas Density (n)
Ideal Gas Law

PV = NkT

Gas density at 1 Pascal at room temp.

N/V = n = P/kT
= (1 N/m2)/(1.3807x10-23J/K)(300 K)
= [1 (kg-m/s2)/m2]/[4.1x10-21 kg-m2/s2]
= 2.4x1020 atoms per m3
= 2.4x1014 cm-3 at 1 Pa

Rule of Thumb

n(T) = 3.2x1013 cm-3 x (300/T) at a pressure of 1 mTorr

Gas Kinetics
Maxwellian Distribution
3/ 2
P (v ) m mv 2
f (v ) exp
4v 2kT
2
2kT

Average speed of an atom:

_
8kT
v c v f (v)4v dv 2

0
m
Flux of atoms to the x-y plane surface:

1
z n v z n v z f (v)dv n v 3

vZ 0
4
Very important!
(Campbell)
 Example
A vacuum chamber has a base pressure of 10-6 Torr.
Assuming that this is dominated by water vapor, what is
the flux of H2O to a substrate placed in this chamber?

n = 3.2x1013 cm-3/mTorr * 10-3 mTorr = 3.2x1010 cm-3

<v> = (8kT/M)1/2 = 59200 cm/s

z = ()n<v> = 4.74x1014 molecules per cm2 per sec!

This is approximately one monolayer of H2O every second

at 10-6 Torr base pressure.
Collisions and Mean Free Path
Gas Density
n = P/ kT

Cross-section
~ d2
n
d

Rigorous Hard Sphere Collisions: = kT / 2 d2P

Ar 2.6 1015 cm 2 Arcm8 / P (mTorr)

Part 3: Plasma Basics
 Paschen Curve
F. Paschen, Ann. Phys. Chem., Ser. 3 37, 69 (1889). VDC

Too many collisions

Electron energy<ionization energy

http://www.duniway.com/images/pdf/pg/Paschen-Curve.pdf

Too few ionizing

collisions: >d
 What do we need to know about
plasma? light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
electrons
ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
 Power Absorbed
light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
electrons
ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
 Power Absorbed: DC
DC power
General electrical mobility and conductivity
Mobility: e = q<t>/m = q/mme
Where <t> is the average time between collisions
and m is the collision frequency (collisions per
second)
Electron Conductivity: DC = qnee = q2ne/mme

( DC E E )dv 3
Pabsabsorbed:
DC power
vol
 Power Absorbed: RF
RF/microwave power
Ohmic Heating VRF
1 2
f=13.56 MHz
Pabs DC 2 m
|E | 2
dv 3

vol
2 2
m

Generic electron-neutral collision

frequency
m ~ 5x10-8 ngasTe1/2 (s-1) An electron oscillates in a rf
ngas (cm-3), Te(eV).
electric field without gaining
Example: Find the pressure at energy
which rf ohmic heating becomes unless
ineffective: m = 0.1 Te = 2eV
electron collisions occur
= 13.56 MHz * 2 = 85.2Mrad/s
ngas = 0.1*85.2x106/5x10-8(2)1/2 =
1.2x1014 cm-3 = 3.7 mTorr
Hopwood and Mantei, JVST A21, S139 (2003)
 Stochastic Heating
an electron enters and exits a region of high field for a fraction of an rf cycle
t0 << 2

Reflecting Boundary (plasma sheath)

Emax
ERF

-
E~0 vx(t0) > vx(0)

The usual mechanism for heating electrons using RF electric fields at low pressures
 Wave/Resonant Heating
-Ex t1 t2 t3

- - -
x

BDC Electron cyclotron frequency:

ce = qB/me = 1.76x107 B(gauss)
ERF If ce and ERF is perpendicular to BDC,
E=0 v then the electron gains energy from Ex in
y the absence of collisions.

x F = q(vxB) Ex. f=2.45 GHz --> B=875 G

W/cm3

Hopwood and Mantei, JVST A21, S139 (2003)

 Electron Collisions
light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
electrons
ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
 Electron Collisions
Elastic Collisions:
Ar + e Ar + e
Gas heating: energy is coupled from e to the gas
Excitation Collisions
Ar + ehot Ar* + ecold, Ar* Ar + h
Responsible for the characteristic plasma glow
Eelectron>Eexc (~11.55 eV for argon)
Ionization Collisions:
Ar + ehot Ar+ + 2ecold
Couples electrical energy into producing more e_
Eelectron > Eiz (15.76 eV for argon)
Dissociation:
O2 + ehot 2O + ecold or O2 + ehot O + O+ + 2ecold
Creates reactive chemical species within the plasma
Eelectron > Ediss (5.12 eV for oxygen)
 Collision Cross Sections
Unlike the hard sphere model, real collision cross
sections are a function of electron kinetic energy (E), or
electron velocity (v).
We must find the expected collision frequency by
averaging over all E or v.

1 v(cm / sec)
inelastic vngas ...where 1 / ngas
t (cm)
becomes

inelastic ngas v ngas (v)v f (v)dv
0

K v (cm3s-1)
 Graphically

f(E)
f(E) or (E)

Ar(E)

Note: the exponential tail of energetic

electrons is responsible for ionization

Te Eiz Electron energy, E

The RATE CONSTANT: Kiz(Te) Kizoexp(-Eizo/Te)

curve fitting
 Graphically
Hot electrons more ionization

f(E)
f(E) or (E)

Ar(E)

Note: the exponential tail of energetic

electrons is responsible for ionization

Te Eiz Electron energy, E

The RATE CONSTANT: Kiz(Te) Kizoexp(-Eizo/Te)

curve fitting
Examples of Numerically Determined Rate Constants (Lieberman, 2005)
 Generation Rate of Plasma
Species by Electron Collisions

y+ex+e
dnx/dt = Kxneny

For example,

Ar + e Ar+ + e + e
dne/dt = Kiznengas

is the number of electrons (and ions) generated

per cm3 per second
 Electron-Ion Recombination
Three-Body Problem:
e + Ar+ + M Ar + M
the third body is needed to conserve energy and momentum in the
recombination process

wall recombination volume recombination

- - M
M M
+ +

wall recombination dominates at low pressure because three body collisions are rare
 Transport to Surfaces
light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
electrons
ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals, n = n<v>
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
Electron and Ion Loss to the Substrate and Walls
- the plasma sheath -
- - -
-

chamber
- neni

0 -

- - - -
electrons are much more mobile than ions
e = q<t>/me >> q<ti>/mi = i
 Electron and Ion Loss to the Substrate and Walls
- the plasma sheath -
s
ne<<ni
n e = ni (sheath)

-1kV
0v
(x) + +
V
x
x

V(x) + e

x (after Mahan, 2000)

low energy electrons are trapped within the plasma, but ions are
accelerated by the sheath potential to the chamber walls and substrate
 Ion Flux
The ion flux to a solid object is determined by
the Bohm velocity (or sound speed) of the
ion:

uB = (kTe/mi)1/2 = 9.8x105 (Te/M)1/2 cm/s

=9.8x105 (3 eV/40 amu)1/2 ~ 2.5x105 cm/s

and the ion flux is given by i = uBni (cm-2s-1)

(this is the ion speed at the edge of the sheath)
 Electron Flux
Only the most energetic electrons can
overcome the sheath potential, V s.
e = ne<ve> exp (qVs/kTe)
flux to surface Boltzmann factor
f(E)

Te qVs Electron energy, E

 Sheath Potential, Vs
In the steady state, the electron and ion fluxes to
the chamber/substrate must be equal, if there is
no external current path

e = i
ne<ve> exp (qVs/kTe) = uBni = (kTe/mi)1/2 ne
giving
Vs = -Teln(mi/2me) ~ -5Te
This is often called the floating potential:
Isolated surfaces have a negative potential relative to the plasma.
 Ion Energy
Ex: Assuming argon with Te = 3 eV, s
the ion energy at the cathode is
Ei = q(1 kV + 4.7Te) = 1014 eV
ignoring ion-neutral collision within s,
and the ion energy at the anode is -1kV
0v
Ei = 4.7 Te = 14 eV
V

x
Ion mean free path:
i = 1/ngasi ~ 3/p (cm) for Ar+
where p is the pressure in mTorr
(after Mahan, 2000)
Here i = 3/100 cm or 0.3 mm @ 0.1 torr
NOTE: s>>i Ei << 1014 eV!
 Particle Conservation
and Electron Temperature
A simple model for electron temperature can
be found for a steady state plasma:

# of ions created/sec = # of ions lost/sec

KizngasneV = uBniAeff
ne=ni

Kiz/uB = Kizoe-E /kT /(kTe/mi)1/2 = Aeff/(V ngas)

iz e

=1/deffngas
(V=plasma volume, Aeff = effective chamber area, deff = V/Aeff)
The electron temperature (Te) is a Single-step vs. Two-step Ionization
unique function of
7
1. gas density, ngas (pressure)
2. chamber size, deff = V/Aeff 6
n0 = 1 x 1011 cm-3
3. gas type: Kiz, Eiz
5
single-step

Example: 4 Ar + e Ar+ + 2e

Te (eV)
Two large parallel plates separated by
2 cm are used to sustain an argon 3
plasma at 25 mTorr. Find Te. two-step

deff = V/Aeff ~ R2d / (R2 +R2) = d/2 2 Ar+eAr*+e

Ar* + e Ar+ + 2e
ngasdeff ~ (25*3.2x1019m-3)(0.01m) 1
=0.8e+19 m-2
0
1e+18 1e+19 1e+20 1e+21 1e+22
Te = 3 eV
ngdeff (m-2)

(Note: we have assume that the plasma density is uniform)

 Power Conservation
and Electron Density, ne
Power Absorbed by the Plasma = Power Lost from the Plasma
Pion Pelectron

Pabs = [qniuBEion+q(ne<ve>eV /kT )Eelec]Aeff +

s e

(Pheat+Plight+Pdiss)
qneuBAeff(Eion + Eelec + Ec)
qVs 2Te

where EC is the collisional energy lost in creating an

electron-ion pair due to ionization, light, dissociative
collisions, and heat:
EC = [izEiz + exEex + dissEdiss + m(3me/mi)Te]/iz
 Collisional Energy Loss
C
 Electron Density Example
Continuing with the previous example
A plasma is sustained in argon at 25 mTorr between two parallel
plates separated by 2 cm. The radius of the plates is 20 cm and the
power absorbed by the plasma is 100 watts. Find ne.

100 W = qneuBAeff(Eion + Eelec + Ec)

= (1.6x10-19C)ne(2.5x105cm/s)(2x202 cm2) x
(5Te + 2Te + 35 eV)
ne = 1.3x1010 cm-3

Find ne if the gas is N2, assuming that Te ~ 3 eV

100 W = (1.6x10-19C)ne(2.5x105cm/s)(2x202 cm2)(5Te + 2Te + 400 eV)

ne = 2.3 x 109 cm-3

 Example (contd)
Repeat the previous example using argon, BUT include an
electrode voltage of 1000v that is applied to one plate to
sustain the plasma.

100 W = qneuBAeff(Eion + Eelec + Ec)

= (1.6x10-19C)ne(2.5x105cm/s)(x202 cm2) x
{(5Te + 2Te + 35 eV)+[(1000 eV+5Te) + 2Te + 35 eV]}
anode cathode

ne = 1.7x109 cm-3
 Secondary Electrons
e = seci , where sec~0.1-10 and Ee ~ qVs
light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
secondary
electrons electrons

ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
 Summary
light
Power Gas flow

PLASMA

gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
electrons
ne, Te ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons

substrate

pumping pumping
 Conclusion
Basics of Vacuum
ng, <v>, n,,
Plasma Generation and Simple Models
T e , n e , ni , i
Basic Plasma Generation
DC (sputter deposition systems)
AC < 400 kHz (plasma displays, lighting)
Radio Frequency 0.4<f<900 MHz (etching and
deposition)
Microwave > 900 MHz