BRITAIN AT WAR

Profesor coordonator: Elev:

Mandrea Teodora Ciobanu Eduard
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of
Contents.................................................................................................................................2
Argument.......................................................................................................................................
......4
Introduction...................................................................................................................................
......5
Chapter
1.............................................................................................................................................6
Seven Year War.............................................................................................................................6
1.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................6
1.2 Background..........................................................................................................................6
1.3 Description of Conflict.........................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Battle of Minden.......7
1.3.2 Naval Supremacy....8
1.4 Legacy and Aftermath.......8
Chapter
2...........................................................................................................................................10
The American War of Independence........10
2.1 Causes of the War....10
2.2 Description of Conflict........11
2.2.1 Independence.......13
2.3 The End of the War.......13
2.3.1 Impact on Britain.....13
Chapter 3.....................................................................................14
War of 1812..14
3.1 Introduction....14
3.2 Causes of the War...14
3.3 Description of Conflict..15
3.4 End of the War and Its Impact......16
Chapter 4......................................................................................19
Crimean War..19
4.1 Road to War..19
4.2 'The sick man of Europe'.20
4.3 Description of Conflict..20
4.3.1 Media Coverage.21
4.4 The Aftermath..21
Chapter 5......................................................................................22
World War I...22

5.1 Overview: Britain and World War One.22

5.2 The Social Impact of War24
5.3 One Day Peace...26
Chapter 6...............................................................................28
World War II.28
6.1 Evacuation....28
6.2 Battling the Blitz...29
6.3 VE Day and the Aftermath.31
Chapter 7................................................................................33
Afghanistan War.....33
7.1 Crisis in Afghanistan....33
7.2 The reality of Britains war in Afghanistan.....34
7.3 License to Kill....35
Conclusion....36
Bibliography.......37
 ARGUMENT

My paper Britain at war is a long- thought of project as well as

a challenge, considering my honest interest in history and political
events that I have developed for some years.
In the preparation of my project I expanded my knowledge
studying generous bibliography together with the development of facts
happening, considering that there are peoples at war even at the time
this paper has finished.
The theme I chose is structured in chapters addressed separately
as distinct parts.
We chose to write about the wars Great Britain was involved in
except for Afghanistan War, which continues because of my keen
interest in history.
 INTRODUCTION
Since 1603 England and Scotland have been under the same monarchs. After
the revolutions in 168889 and 170203, projects for a closer union miscarried, and
in 170304 international tension provoked a dangerous legislative warfare between
the separate parliaments of England and Scotland. On both sides of the border,
however, statesmen were beginning to realize that an incorporating union offered
the only mutually acceptable solution to a problem that had suddenly become
urgent: Scotlands need for economic security and material assistance and Englands
need for political safeguards against French attacks and a
possibleJacobiterestoration, for which Scotland might serve as a conveniently open
back door. Englands bargaining card was freedom of trade; Scotlands was
acquiescence in the Hanoverian succession. Both points were quickly accepted by
the commissioners appointed by QueenAnneto discuss union, and within three
months they had agreed on a detailed treaty (AprilJuly 1706).
The two kingdoms were to be united, the Protestant succession was adopted,
and trade was to be free and equal throughout Great Britain and its dominions.
Subject to certain temporary concessions, taxation, direct and indirect, would also
be uniform; and England compensated Scotland for undertaking to share
responsibility for Englands national debt by payment of an equivalent of 398,085
10 shillings. Scots law and the law courts were to be preserved. In the united
Parliament, Scotland, because of its relative poverty, was given the inadequate
representation of 45 commoners and 16 lords. By separate statutes annexed to the
treaty, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Episcopal Church of England
were secured against change.
 SEVEN YEAR WAR

The Seven Years' War, 1756-63, was the first global war. France, Austria,
Russia, Saxony, Sweden and Spain were fighting against Prussia, Great
Britain, and Hanover. Battles were fought in Europe, North America, Africa,
The Philippines and India. Britain emerged from the war as the world's
leadingcolonial powerhaving gained a number of new territories at
theTreaty of Parisin 1763 and established itself as the world's pre-
eminentnaval power.
The hostilities of the Seven Years War were immediately preceded by
areversal of traditional alliancesin Europe. Austria had long been friendly
toward Britain and hostile toward France, but because Austria seemed
unlikely to protect Hanover from French or Prussian aggression, Britain in
January 1756 allied itself with Prussia to obtain such security.
By the summer of 1756 the French defeated a Hanoverian army led by
the Duke of Cumberland, a younger son of Britains King George II, and in
September they forced Cumberland to disband his army.
 Battle of Minden
Battle of Minden
Battle of Minden

On the night of the 31 st July, both

commanders simultaneously decided to
attack the other outside Minden. The
French forces reacted hesitantly when
faced with Germans in front of them as
dawn broke, allowing the Allies to seize
the initiative and counter-attack.
However, one column of British
troops advanced too quickly and soon
found itself attacked on all sides by a
mixture of cavalry, artillery and infantry
which vastly outnumbered them. The
British managed to hold them off,
sustaining casualties of a third. When
they were reinforced with other troops,
the Allies broke through the French lines Battle of
and forced them to retreat. In the Minden
confusion, the French were allowed to
escape the battlefield and avoid total
disaster.
 By the Franco-British Treaty of Paris (Feb. 10, 1763), Britain won North America and
India and became the undisputed leader in overseas colonization. Five days later at
the Treaty of Hubertusburg, Frederick maintained his possession of Silesia and confirmed
Prussias stature as a major European power

The British victory in the war sowed some of the seeds of Britain's later conflict in
the American War of Independence. The war had also brought to an end the "Old System" of
alliances in Europe, in which Britain had formed grand coalitions against Bourbon ambitions
in Europe. In the years after the war the British did try to re-establish this system but
European states such as Austria and the Dutch Republic now saw Britain as a potentially
greater threat than France and did not join them while the Prussians were angered by what
they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently when the American War of
Independence turned into a global war between 177883, Britain found itself arrayed against
a strong coalition of European opponents without a single major ally.
 THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The conflict between Britain and her American colonists was triggered by
the financial costs of the Anglo-French wars of the previous thirty years, in
particular theSeven Years War (1756-63). A principal theatre of conflict had
been in North America, where it was felt that the colonials had failed to play
their part either financially or in the fighting. In the years immediately after the
war, the army in North America consumed 4% of British government spending.
This cost, combined with the victories over the French had Increased British
interest in their colonies.
The next increase in the tension came in 1765 with the Stamp Act and
a trade act knows as the Sugar Act. It was the Stamp Act that caused the
most protest. This was a direct tax, levied on the paper required for legal
transactions and on newspapers.
In Britain the protest came from those merchants whose exports were
being taxed and then boycotted.
 The first shots of the war were
fired in Massachusetts. Here the most
rebellious of the colonies was faced by
General Thomas Gage, Governor of
Massachusetts and commander-in-chief
of all British troops in North America .

The Americans learnt of this plan,

and fortified Breed's Hill on the
Charlestown peninsular north of the
harbor. The resultingbattle of Bunker
Hill (17 June 1775)was a disaster for
the British. Bunker Hill effectively
knocked the main British army out of
the war for the next year. BattleofBunkerHill
 By June nine colonies were ready
for independence; one by one the last
four Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Maryland and New York fell into
line. Richard Henry Leewas instructed
by the Virginia legislature to propose
independence, and he did so on June
7, 1776. On the 11th a committee was
created to draft a document
explaining the justifications for
separation from Britain. After securing
enough votes for passage,
independence was voted for on July 2.

TheDeclaration of
Independence, drafted largely
byThomas Jeffersonand presented by Losing the war and the 13 colonies
the committee, was slightly revised
was a shock to Britain. The war revealed
and unanimously adopted by the
entire Congress on July 4, marking the the limitations of Britain's fiscal-military
formation of a new sovereign nation, state when it discovered it suddenly faced
which called itself theUnited States of powerful enemies, with no allies, and
America.
dependent on extended and vulnerable
transatlantic lines of communication.
 WAR OF 1812
In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the
world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the
young country's future. Causes of the war included British attempts to restrict
U.S. trade, the Royal Navy's impressments of American seamen and America's
desire to expand its territory. The United States suffered many costly defeats at
the hands of British, Canadian and Native American troops over the course of the
War of 1812, including the capture and burning of the nation's capital,
Washington, D.C., in August 1814.
Neither the British in Canada nor the United States were prepared for war.
The British government, preoccupied with the European conflict, saw
American hostilities as a bothersome distraction, resulting in a paucity of
resources in men, supplies, and naval presence until late in the event. As the
British in Canada conducted operations under the shadow of scarcity, their only
consolation was an American military malaise. Michigan territorial
governorWilliam Hullled U.S. forces into Canada from Detroit, butIsaac
BrockandTecumsehs warriors chased Hull back across the border and frightened
him into surrendering Detroit on Aug. 16, 1812, without firing a shotbehavior
that Americans and even Brocks officers found disgraceful.

To the west, however, American
Oliver Hazard Perrys Lake Erie squadron
won a great victory off Put-In-Bay on
Sept. 10, 1813, against Capt. Robert
Barclay. The battle opened the way for
Harrison to retake Detroit and defeat
Procters British and Indian forces at the
Battle of the Thames (Oct. 5). Tecumseh
was killed during the battle, shattering
his confederation and the Anglo-Indian
alliance.
Early in the war, the small U.S.
navy boosted sagging American
morale as officers such asIsaac
Hull,Stephen Decatur, andWilliam
Bainbridgecommanded heavy
frigates in impressive single-ship
actions .The British Admiralty
responded by instructing captains
to avoid individual contests with
Americans and within a year the
Royal Navy had blockaded
important American ports, bottling
up U.S. frigates.
 Immediately after the war started, the tsar of Russia offered to mediate. London
refused, but early British efforts for an armistice revealed a willingness to negotiate
so that Britain could turn its full attention to Napoleon.
The commissioners signed a treaty on Dec. 24, 1814. Based on the status quo
antebellum (the situation before the war), theTreaty of Ghentdid not resolve the
issues that had caused the war, but at that point Britain was too weary to win it, and
the U.S. government deemed not losing it a tolerable substitute for victory.
Nevertheless, many Americans became convinced that they had won the contest.
The most enduring international consequence of the war was in the arbitration
clauses of Ghent, perhaps the treatys most important feature. Its arrangements to
settle outstanding disagreements established methods that could adapt to changing
U.S. administrations, British ministries, and world events. There lay the seeds of an
Anglo-American comity that would weather future disagreements to sustain the
longest unfortified border in the world.
Though the War of 1812 is remembered as a relatively minor conflict in the
United States and Britain, it looms large for Canadians and forNative Americans,
who see it as a decisive turning point in their losing struggle to govern
themselves.Perhaps most importantly, the war's outcome boosted national self-
confidence and encouraged the growing spirit of American expansionism that would
shape the better part of the 19th century.
 CRIMEAN WAR
In July 1853, Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and
Walachia) to pressure Istanbul, but this threatened Austrias economic lifeline -
the Danube. For a sick man, Turkey proved remarkably dexterous and
aggressive. Outwitting Austria, Britain and France, who still favored a
diplomatic settlement, they in late November, the Russian Black Sea fleet
annihilated a Turkish squadron at Sinope.
Britain, anxious to secure her trade with Turkey and access to India by
maintaining the Ottoman regime, saw this as an insult and popular opinion
made a vigorous response inevitable. The arriviste French empire, for its part,
was desperate for military glory and revenge for its defeat at the hands of
Russia in 1812. For them, the Ottoman-Turkish Empire was incidental.
Britain and France demanded that Russia evacuate the Danubian
Principalities, setting their ultimatum to expire in late March 1854 - the timing
determined by the break up of the Baltic ice fields off Reval where the British
hoped to annihilate part of the Russian Baltic fleet. Britain always saw its main
instrument for the coercion of Russia to be naval force in the north.
 After all, Russias capital
was on the Baltic littoral, close
to her other great security
concern, Poland. The ultimatum
expired and although the harbor
at Reval was empty, the
powerful Anglo-French fleet
nonetheless took command of
the Baltic, destroying the key
fortress of Bomarsund in August
1854.
Bombardment of Bomarsund.
 Crimean War,was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula between theRussiansand
theBritish,French, andOttoman Turkish, with support, from January 1855, by the army
ofSardinia-Piedmont.
Supported by Britain, the Turks took a firm stand against the Russians, who occupied
theDanubian principalities (modern Romania) on the Russo-Turkish border in July 1853.
The British fleet was ordered to Constantinople (Istanbul) on September 23. On October 4
the Turks declared war on Russia and in the same month opened an offensive against the
Russians in the Danubian principalities. After the RussianBlack Seafleet destroyed a
Turkish squadron at Sinope, on the Turkish side of the Black Sea, the British and French
fleets entered the Black Sea on Jan. 3, 1854, to protect Turkish transports.
On March 28, Britain and France declared war on Russia .In September 1854 the allies
landed troops in Russian Crimea, on the north shore of the Black Sea, and began a year-
long siege of the Russian fortress ofSevastopol.Major engagements were fought at the
Alma River on September 20, at Balaklava on October 25, and at Inkerman on November
5. The capture of Sevastopol was the last significant fighting of the war.
 For the first time, improved
technology allowed news to reach home Peace
very quickly, and the telegraph reports terms were
sent by William Russell, war agreed on 1
correspondent of theTimes of
February 1856
Londonenraged British public opinion to
the extend that the government of Lord at Vienna, and
Aberdeen fell, the first time the the final peace
condition of the fighting men had agreed at the
aroused such emotions. Congress of
Paris resulting
Roger Fentons photographs brought in the Treaty of
the Crimean battlefields to life, while Paris.
the electric telegraph enabled news to
travel across the continent in hours, not The Crimean War witnessed the
weeks. War became much more collapse of the Vienna Settlement, the
immediate - a massive leap forward on system that had enabled Austria, Britain,
the way to our age of instant global France, Prussia and Russia to cooperate
coverage by satellite. Many officers
and maintain peace for three decades.
regretted the presence of reporters,
regarding them as a source of security Ultimately, Britain was unable to balance
leaks, and tried to control the news. the new system and the European Great
Powers finally returned to war in 1914.
 WORLD WAR I
In 1901, the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty accepted American domination of the
western Atlantic. In the following year, Britain and Japan entered an alliance which
enabled Britain to offset its fears of Russia in the Far East.
Anglo-French hostility, so often theleitmotifof both sides' foreign policies for
the previous two centuries, was finally buried with an entente in 1904. Ostensibly
this settled the two powers' rivalries in North Africa and the Mediterranean, but
increasingly what was designed as a settlement of colonial disputes came to carry
European connotations.
This process was made even clearer with the fourth and final stage of the
process, the entente with Russia in 1907. At one level this laid to rest Britain's
long standing fears about the security of India from attack on its north western
frontier.
At another, it completed the creation in Europe of a Triple Entente to match
the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Germany's attempts to
rupture the Entente, principally through engineering crises over Morocco in 1905
and 1911, had the reverse effect.
They bound the powers tighter together and convinced them that colonial
clashes had to be subordinated to the greater issues revolving round the balance
of power in Europe.
 Sea power:
Strategically, its maritime power meant that
it could not permit a mighty and hostile
European power to dominate the Low Countries
and so threaten the English Channel.
Germanys invasion of Belgium became the
mechanism by which such thoughts could be
rendered in popular and more universal terms:
great power politics were presented as
ideologies. The implication was that Britain
would wage war as a sea power, which was
exactly how Grey made his case to the House
of Commons on 3 August 1914.
The French government was even more
anxious to ensure that Britain honored the
Anglo-French naval agreement of 1912 - which
had left the defense of France's northern coast
in the hands of the Royal Navy - than to secure
the dispatch of a British Expeditionary Force to
the continent.
ARCHITECTS OF VICTORY:
Without the navy, Britain could not have stayed
in the war. Although it fought only one fleet action,
at Jutland on 31 May 1916, it prevented the German
navy from breaking out of the confines of the North
Sea.
In this way, maritime trade between the Entente
powers and the rest of the world, and above all the
United States of America, was sustained. Britain
became the arsenal and financier of the alliance,
weathering even the German decision to declare
unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917.
But Britain did more than that. It provided a mass
army as well.
As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George
struck deals with the labor movement to ensure the
provision of skilled workers. As minister of
munitions, he converted industry to war production.
And as prime minister from December 1916, he
committed Britain to a war on both the domestic
and fighting fronts. The strategic architects of the
war did not like him, but they could not think of a
better substitute .
 The war bestowed two valuable
legacies on women. First, it opened up a
wider range of occupations to female
workers and hastened the collapse of
traditional women's employment,
particularly domestic service. Women
were more than just handmaidens,
madonnas, and patriotic mothers.
During World War One, the range of
roles open to women was immense: they
manned factories, invested in war bonds,
harvested crops, and cared for troops on
leave. They also enlisted in the armed
forces. In World War One, approximately
80,000 women served in the three British Hundred of thousands of men
women's forces as non-combatants. returned from the war injured in some way.
However, British women lobbied to be
Women bore a large part of the burden of
allowed to have rifle training and bear
arms for home defense. In this area, they
caring for these men. Even worse, women
had little success within the established lost their fathers, husbands, lovers,
(male) home defense forces. brothers, and sons. For these women, life
would never be the same.
 On Dec. 25, 1914, five months into
World War I, British and German troops on
the Western Front stopped fighting in a
spontaneous ceasefire; soldiers from
opposing nations put their weapons aside to
enjoy carols and a game of soccer together.
At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914,
many government and military
leadersbelieved the conflict would be over
by Christmas.However, after the German
advance through France and Belgium was
halted at the Battle of Marne in September
1914,
But that Christmas, the fighting briefly fighting
came to an along
end on the
many Western
parts ofFront
the
became locked in a stalemate.
Western Front, as soldiers reached separate ceasefires to celebrate the holiday.
The truces were made primarily between British and German soldiers, though
some French and Belgian regiments also participated. It was then we discovered
that those on the other side were not the savage barbarians we'd been told,
Alfred Anderson, the last surviving British soldier to take part in the 1914 truce.
 World War II
Evacuation:
Throughout World War Two, in a massively
complex and dramatic operation, approximately
three million people were evacuated from towns
and cities that were in danger of being bombed by
enemy aircraft.
The evacuation of around three million people to
rural locations beyond the reach of German air
attacks deeply aff ected the nation. This was the
fi rst time an offi cial evacuation had ever been
deemed necessary and the experience of mass
evacuation - the biggest and most concentrated
movement of people in British history - remains
uppermost in the minds of those who lived through
the war. The majority of people who were
evacuated were children.
For some children this was their first taste of
The fi rst day of the evacuation was portrayed in living in the countryside or abroad; not all of
the national press as a great success and an
them found the change easy to adapt to. Some
example of the people's optimism, strength and
commitment to the war eff ort. But many witnesses children were treated badly. Others, however,
remember only chaos and confusion, and parents found new friends and enjoyed new experiences
were heartbroken to see their families divided. and, when the war came to an end, the return to
city life was equally emotional.
 London
Blitz, the German word for
'lightning', was applied by the
British press to the tempest of
heavy and frequent bombing raids
carried out over Britain in 1940 and
1941. This concentrated, direct
bombing of industrial targets and
civilian centers began with heavy
raids on London on 7 September
1940 during what became known as
the Battle of Britain. Hitler and
Hermann Goering's plans to destroy
the Royal Air Force ahead of an
invasion of Britain were failing and,
also The
in response
infamous to a RAF of
bombing raid on
Coventry on 14 November 1940 brought an even
Berlin, they changed their tactics to
more terrifying twist to the campaign. Five hundred German bombers dropped 500
the sustained
tones bombingand
of high explosives of nearly
civilian
900 incendiary bombs on the city in ten hours
targets.
of relentless bombardment. This tactic was emulated on an even greater scale by
the RAF in their attacks on German cities.
 After the suicide of Hitler on 30 April 1945, it was left to Grand Admiral
Donitz, who had been President of the Third Reich for a week, to surrender.
Huge crowds gathered in London on the following day. At 3pm Churchill made
a radio broadcast. In Trafalgar Square, as his voice was relayed over
loudspeakers, an eye-witness noted that 'there was an extraordinary hush over
the assembled multitude'.
All over the country people held fancy dress parades for children, got drunk,
made a din, sang and danced in the streets, and went to church to give thanks to
God for victory. The war had been won, but the peace did not promise to be easy.

Tuesday 8 May 1945

 AFGHANISTAN WAR

Afghanistan is the UK governments most important foreign policy and

national security issue, according to Prime Minister David Cameron.
The current war in Afghanistan has now entered its 13th year, longer
than both the First World War and Second World War combined. According to
the latest timetable for withdrawal, British combat forces could still remain
in the country for a further four years.
Over 1,450 US service personnel and 350 British personnel have been
killed in Afghanistan to date .The most recent year, 2010, was the bloodiest
for foreign troops, with 711 killed compared with 521 during 2009.
The impact of military intervention can be seen in figures from the United
Nations refugee agency, UNHCR, which reveal that one in four of all
refugees the agency deals with worldwide, comes from Afghanistan.
There are currently around 10,000 British troops in Afghanistan.
TherealityofBritainswarinAfghanistan:
In order to justify the cost in human life
and resources expended in Afghanistan,
British government officials have
repeatedly said they are fighting the war
for reasons of UK national security and to
prevent terrorist attacks in the UK.
Officials have also claimed that the war
is to advance development and to improve
human rights, especially womens rights.
Yet British government ministers and
military leaders have also given other
reasons for fighting in Afghanistan, many
of which have gone largely unreported in
the media. General Sir Richard Dannatt,
then Chief of the General Staff, said in a
speech in 2007 that Britain is well into a
new and deadly Great Game in
Afghanistan only this time with a
Theadversary.
different Great Game is a term used for the strategic wars that took place in the
19th century between the British Empire and Russian Empire over control of
Central Asia, when Afghanistan was used as a buffer state through which to
protect British interests in India. Today Afghanistan continues to be a chessboard
across which global and regional powers attempt to expand their control over the
resource-rich Middle East and Central Asia.
 LICENSE TO KILL:
The number of civilians killed in
Afghanistan in the five years from
2006 to 2010 has been
conservatively estimated at over
8,000.Roughly a third of these are
attributable to coalition or
government forces.
British companies are some of
the biggest players in the private
military and security industry, but
remain unregulated and
unaccountable.

As the British government is plunged deeper into conflict in Afghanistan, national

regulation is urgently needed to hold these corporate mercenaries to account. The
UKs coalition government has failed to respond to calls from civil society for robust
regulation of Private Military and Security Companies, and instead is pressing
ahead with plans for a voluntary code of conduct. Yet a voluntary code of conduct
would leave civilians in war zones like Afghanistan exposed to the risk of further
abuses by mercenaries working for private armies, and fails to address the serious
issues raised by the outsourcing of war to private companies.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, I consider that knowing history, or the history of your
culture, is important because it helps us to know who we are while molding
the future. Being familiar with what went on before gives us the ability to
learn not only from past mistakes but also from great successes as well.

The major conflicts that involve Great Britain had a huge influence on
European World evolution, starting with the Seven Year War and continuing
with the American War of Independence, the War of 1812, the Crimean War,
World War I, and World War II and up to the Afghanistan War whose
consequences still reverberate upon us.

To conclude my paper I would like to quote the following words:

Whoever wishes to foresee the future must consult the past; for human
events ever resemble those of preceding times. This arises from the fact
that they are produced by men who ever have been, and ever shall be,
animated by the same passions, and thus they necessarily have the same
results.(Machiavelli)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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