Unit 5:

Energy, Exercise and

Coordination
Revision Notes
Topic 7
Run for Your Life
Muscles & Movement
Ligaments hold bones
together and restrict
their movements at
joints. Theyre made of
elastic connective
tissue

Tendons are non-elastic

fibrous, cord-like tissue
which attach muscle to
bone
Muscles & Movement
Knee joint is a synovial joint:
Tendo
n joins
muscle
to bon
e Bone

Mu
scl
e

le Cartilage absorbs synovial fuid, acts as shock

to bone, strong & fexib
Ligament joins bone absorber
ck protection
d Cartilage Pad gives extra sho
y no v ial fui
es s
an e secret
br t
ovia l Mem ic an
Fibrous capsule encloses the joint
Syn ub
r
l
s as
t
Ac
i d
u
l Fl
ovia
n
Sy
Muscles & Movement
Skeletal muscles are
usually in antagonist
pairs. These are pairs of
muscles which pull in
opposite directions

Flexors contract to fex

or bend a joint (biceps)

Extensors contract to
extend or straighten a
joint (triceps)
Muscles & Movement
The structure of skeletal
muscles are shown right. Conne
ctive
Tissue

Myofibrils are made up of Bundle of muscle

fbres
fibrous proteins: actin (thin
filaments) and myosin (thick One musc
le fbre
filaments)

Sarcolemma is the cell surface

membrane of a muscle cell bril
of
My

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is a
specialised ER. It stores and
Neuromuscula
One
Sarc
releases Ca+ ions. r Junction is
om e
re

the specialised
Sarcoplasm is cytoplasm synapse
inside a muscle cell. between
neurones and
muscle cells.
Muscles & Movement
1 sarcomere

The sliding filament theory of

My
music contraction is given osi
n
Actin
most simply by a diagram (R)
Arrangement of filaments when relaxed
Myosin filaments have fexible
heads that can change
orientation, bind to actin and
hydrolyse ATP using ATPase

Actin filaments are associated

Arrangement of filaments when contracted
with 2 other proteins:
Troponin & Tropomyosin which
control binding of myosin
heads to actin filaments.
Muscles & Movement
When a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction, Ca+ ions are released from
sarcoplasmic reticulum. The process below then occurs:
Myosin
Myosin
n
ni
Ca 2+ binding
bindingsite
site
Act
b in o blocked by
in sit ding
op blocked by
Tr
e tropomyosin.
tropomyosin.
Myosin
Myosinhead
head
cannot
cannotbind.
bind.
Trop
Actin omy
ADP + Pi osin

CaCa2+attaches
2+
attachestototroponin
troponin(on
(onthe
theactin)
actin)causing
causing
itittotomove
move together with threads oftropomyosin
together with threads of tropomyosin

+
Ca2 + +
+
Ca2 + + +
Ca2 +
Ca2 + Ca2 +
2+
Ca

Myosin
binding site

ADP + Pi
Myosin
Myosinhead
headreturns
returnstoto
upright position.
upright position.

Myosin
Myosinbinding
bindingsites
sitesofofactin
actinare
areexposed
exposedso
so
myosin
myosin form cross-bridges with actinfilament
form cross-bridges with actin filament
ATPase causes
ATP hydrolysis

ADP + Pi Released
+
+ Ca2 +
Ca2 + +
+
Ca2 +
+
Ca2 + +
Ca2 +
Ca2 +

ATP BINDS
ADP + Pi ATP
ADP + Pi

Myosin
Myosinheads
headsrelease
releaseADP
ADPandandPiPiand
andchange
change ATP
ATPbinds
bindstotomyosin
myosinhead
headcausing
causing
shape
shape are a result. This is the POWERSTROKE.
are a result. This is the POWER STROKE. itittotodetach
detach from theactin.
from the actin.
Muscles & Movement
There are 2 types of muscle fibres -
Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch

Slow Twitch Fast Twitch

Specialised for slower sustained
Specialised to produce rapid,
contraction. Can cope with long
intense contractions in short bursts.
periods of exercise.

Many mitochondria - ATP comes Few mitochondria - ATP comes from

from aerobic respiration (in E.T.C.) anaerobic respiration (in glycolysis)

Lots of myoglobin (gives it a darker

Little myoglobin and few capillaries.
colour) to store O2 and lots of
The muscle has a light colour.
capillaries to store O2.
Fatigue resistant. Fatigue quickly.
Low glycogen content High Glycogen content

low levels of creatine phosphate high levels of creatine phosphate

Energy Systems
Aerobic respiration:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ~30ATP
Anaerobic respiration:
glucose lactic acid + energy
C6H12O6 3C3H6O3 + 2ATP
ATP provides energy to cells. Energy is need to add a
third phosphate bond to ADP (which creates ATP).
When the bond is broken by hydrolysis, the energy
released can be used in processes in the cell which
need energy.
Energy Systems -
Glycolysis Glucose (hexose) (6C)

ATP

hexose phosphate (6C)

ATP

hexose biphosphate (6C)

Glycolysis=
Gluco (sugar)
+ lysis 2x triose phosphate (3C)

(splitting) 2ATP
2NAD

2H

intermediates 2 Reduced NAD

2ATP

2x pyruvate (3C)
 Anaerobic
Energy Systems - Respiration
Glycolysis doesnt need Lactate Pathway
molecular O2. Instead, a Glucose
constant NAD supply is
required. 2ADP +
2Pi
2H reduced NAD NAD
In anaerobic respiration, NAD is
made by e.t.c. The reduced
NAD must be oxidised to NAD.
2ATP 2H
During anaerobic respiration,
this must come from Pyruvate Lactate
elsewhere.
In animals, pyruvate gets reduced into lactate, and NAD is formed.

The anaerobic respiration allows animals to make a small amount of ATP. The process is
not very efficient, but its fast and delivers ATP to muscle cells when O 2 isnt delivered fast
enough.

Lactate forms Lactic Acid in solution. This reduces the pH which can inhibit enzymes and
cause muscle cramp if allowed to build up.

Once aerobic respiration resumes most lactate is converted back into pyruvate. It is
oxidised via the Krebs cycle into CO2 and H2O. Extra oxygen needed for this is the Oxygen
debt, which must be paid back.
Investigating Rate of
Respiration - Core
Practical
Rate of aerobic respiration can be
determined using a respirometer
You need
Respirometer (see below)
5 g of actively respiring organisms (eg Maggots)
Soda lime
by measuring rate of oxygen Coloured liquid
Dropping pipette
absorbed by small organisms. Permanent marker pen
Solvent (to remove the marker)
Any CO2 produced is absorbed by Cotton wool

the soda lime, so that Oxygen

absorbed by the organisms results
in the coloured liquid moving
towards the organism in the tube.

There is problems with pressure

changes in the apparatus, which
can be solved by the syringe if
necessary.
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration takes place in 2 stages:
First pyruvate is oxidised into Carbon Dioxide, and
Hydrogen (accepted by NAD and FAD). This takes
place in the matrix of mitochondria and involved the
Krebs cycle.
In the 2nd stage, most of the ATP made in aerobic
respiration is synthesised by oxidative
phosphorylation associated in electron transport
chain (e.t.c.). This involves chemiosmosis and ATPase.
It takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria.
 The Link Reaction:
Preparing for the Krebs cycle.

Cytoplasm

Pyruvate from glycolysis

Inside Matrix
Each glucose NAD or FAD

Taken up by Hydrogen
provides 2 CO2 2H
acceptors.

Pyruvate from Reduced NAD or FAD

Glycolysis. This Acetyl (2C) Co-enzyme A

means the link

reaction happens
twice per glucose,
so 2 Acetyl are To Krebs Cycle
made.
 The Krebs Cycle
Acetyl (2C) Co-enzyme A

4C Compound 6C Compound

FAD
2H
Reduced FAD

NAD
2H

Reduced NAD
CO2 NAD
2H
NAD
2H
ATP
Reduced NAD
Reduced NAD
CO2
5C Compound

Each molecule of the 2C Acetyl coenzyme A from the link reaction is used to
generate:
three molecules of reduced NAD
one molecule of reduced FAD
two molecules of CO2
one molecule of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation (synthesised directly from the
energy released by reorganising chemical bonds).
bonds).
one molecule of a 4-carbon compound which is regenerated to accept an acetyl
group and start the cycle again.
Oxidative phosphorylation,
chemiosmosis and the electron
transport chain Vast majority of ATP generated in aerobic respiration comes from the electron transport chain...

Electrons
Electronspass
passfrom
fromone
2electron
Intermembrane Space

1 Reduced one
ReducedNAD
NAD electron carrier to the nextininaa 3 Protons
carrier to the next
Protons(H
(H) )move
moveacross
+
+
acrossthe
the
(coenzyme) series
(coenzyme) seriesofofredox
redoxreactions;
reactions;the
the inner
innermembrane
membranemitochondrial
mitochondrial
carries
carries HH+and
+
andee-
-
carrier is reduced when it membrane
membrane creatinghigh
creating highHH+
+
carrier is reduced when it
totoe.t.c.
e.t.c.on
oninner receives
inner receivesthetheelectrons
electronsand
and concentrations
concentrationsininthe
the
mitochondrial
mitochondrial oxidised when it passes them intermembrane space.
oxidised when it passes them intermembrane space.
membrane.
membrane. on.
on.
H+ H+ H+
4 HH
+
+diffuse back into the
diffuse back into the
3 matrix
matrixdown
downelectrochemical
electrochemical
4 gradient.
gradient.
mitochondria
mitochondrial l membrane

5HH diffusion
+
diffusionallows
+
allowsATPase
ATPase
inner

electron electron electron totocatalyse

carrier carrier carrier catalyseATP
ATP
synthesis
synthesis
2
1 5 6 Electrons
Electrons&&HH ions
+
ions
+

recombine to form hydrogen

recombine
recombineto toform
formhydrogen
hydrogen
Reduced 6 atoms which then combine
atoms which then combine
matrix

NAD
NAD H2O ADP+Pi ATP with
withoxygen
oxygentotocreate
createwater.
water.
IfIfsupply of oxygen stops,
supply of oxygen stops,
2H+ e.t.c.
e.t.c.and
andATP
ATPsynthesis
synthesiswill
will
O also stop.
also stop.

Majority of ATP generated by aerobic respiration comes from the activity of the e.t.c.
in the cristae (inner membrane of the mitochondria)
Aerobic respiration -
summary
The overall reaction can be summarised as

1) splitting and oxidation of a respiratory substance (glucose) to

release CO2 as a waste product.

2) reuniting hydrogen with oxygen which releases a large amount

of energy in the form of ATP.

The diagram (right) shows how

many ATP molecules are
generated by substrate level
phosphorylation and oxidative
phosphorylation (via e.t.c.)
Control of cardiac cycle
The impulse to contract the heart originates from the heart
itself. Hence the heart is myogenic.

r in
a
aye tri
1Electrical
Electricalimpulses
impulsesfrom
fromthe
theSAN
SAN n
l
g en
a
i
spread
spreadacross
acrossthe
theatria
atriawalls,
walls, sino u ct twe les
causing contraction. ATRIAL atri nd be tric
causing contraction. ATRIAL al n o l
SYSTOLE.
SYSTOLE. ode n -c wal ven
(S A LA no art and
N)
1 he

2Impulses
Impulsespass
passtotothe
theventricles
ventriclesvia
via 2
the
theAVN
AVNafter
afteraashort
shortdelay
delaytotoallow
allow RA
time for the atria to finish
time for the atria to finish
contracting. 3

e
contracting.

d
no
LV

N ar
V ul
3Impulses RV 4
(A ric
)
Impulsespass
passdown
downthe
thePurkyne
Purkyne
t
fibres
fibrestotothe
theheart
heartapex.
apex. en
4
ov
ri
at

s
b re
4The impulses spread up through nef
y
The impulses spread up through rk
the Pu
theventricle
ventriclewalls
wallscausing
causing
contraction
contraction from theapex
from the apex
upwards.
upwards. Blood is squeezedinto
Blood is squeezed into
arteries.
arteries. After
Aftersystole
systolethe
theheart
heartgoes
goesinto
intodiastole,
diastole,where
where
VENRTICULAR
VENRTICULARSYSTOLE.
SYSTOLE. the
the cardiac muscles relax. Returning bloodfills
cardiac muscles relax. Returning blood fills
atria.
atria.
Measuring electrical
changes in the heart
Electrical currents caused by wave of depolarisation when
the impulse spreads can be detected using an ECG.
The P wave is the time of
atrial systole.

su lts The QRS complex is the

re
ECG time of ventricular systole.

The T wave is causing

R

P Wav
e T Wav
e
repolarisation of ventricles
ST s
e gme n
t
during diastole
Q S cond
1 Se
l
terva
PR in
You can work out heart beat
by measuring time interval
between 1 P wave and next
(1 cycle) and working out
rate per minute.
Regulation of cardiac
output
cardiac output (dm3min-1) = stroke volume (dm3) x heart
rate (min-1)

stroke volume is volume of blood leaving the left ventricle with

each beat

the heart rate can be affected by hormones (eg adrenaline) and

nervous control.

the Cardiovascular Control Centre in the medulla of the brain

controls the sinoatrial node via nerves.

the Sympathetic Nerve speeds up the heart rate in response to

falls in the pH in the blood due to CO 2 and lactate levels rising,
increases in temperature and mechanical activity in joints.

Impulses carried by vagus nerve (Parasympathetic) slows down

heart rate when the demand for O2 and CO2 reduces.
Regulation of ventilation
rate
ventilation rate = tidal volume x number of breaths per minute

Tidal volume - volume of air breathed in or out of lungs per breath

Vital capacity - max volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a
max intake of air

The ventilation centre in the medulla controls the rate and depth of
breathing in response to impulses from chemereceptors in the medulla
and arteries which detect the pH and concentration of CO 2 in the blood.

Impulses are sent from the ventilation centre to stimulate muscles

involved in breathing.

A small increase in CO2 concentration causes a large increase in

ventilation.

It also increases in response to impulses from the motor cortex and

from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement.

We also have some voluntary control over breathing.

Spirometer
A person using a
spriometer breathes in
and out of an airtight
chamber causing it to
move up & down and
leaving a trace on a
revolving drum.
The volume of O2 absorbed in a given time by
measuring differences in volume between troughs
(labelled A + B) in the diagram and dividing by the
time between A + B.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.

A homeostatic system requires:

receptors to detect the change away from the norm value

(stimulus)

a control mechanisms that can respond to the information. The

control mechanism uses the nervous system or hormones to
switch effectors on or off

effectors to bring about the response. Muscles and glands are

effectors.

Input Receptors Control Mechanism Effectors Output

Feedback
 Homeostasisnegative
- feedback
Negative feedback helps to keep the internal environment constant.

A change in the internal environment will trigger a response that

counteracts the change. For negative feedback to occur there must
be a norm value (set point).
Conditions controlled by homeostasis fuctuate about the norm
value.

norm value

Condition is controlled by negative

feedback.
rise above
norm

norm value
change from effectors act to return time
norm the condition to the set
fall below detected point
norm
Homeostasis
and exercise
The increased respiration rate not only produces a lot of CO2
and/or lactate but the energy transfers also release a lot of
heat energy.

It can be as much as 1C rise every 5-10 mins is the heat cant

be dispersed.

The control of core body temperature through negative

feedback is called thermoregulation.

Thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature, as

well as thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus which can detect
changes in the core blood temperature.

If a rise in temperature is detected above the norm value the

heat loss centre will stimulate effectors to increase heat loss
from the body (usually through skin)
 Homeostasis
and exercise
This can be summarised in the diagram below:
Heat Loss
heat loss Heat Gain
Centre
Centre
Stimulates: detected by centre in effectors
-sweat glands to hypothalamus
receptors react Stimulates:
secrete sweat sends sends
impulses impulses -arterioles in the
Temperature Rises Temperature Falls skin to contsrict
Inhibits:
-hair erector
- contraction of set point set point set point muscles to
arterioles in skin
(norm) (norm) (norm) contract
(dilates
- liver to raise
capillaries)
Temperature Rises metabolic rate
- hair erector Temperature Falls - skeletal muscles
muscles.
detected by heat gain effectors to contract in
- liver (reduces
receptors centre in react shivering
metabolic rate.
hypothalamus
- skeletal muscles sends sends Inhibits:
(relax - no impulses impulses - sweat glands
shivers)

Above and below certain temperatures makes homeostasis fail.

Instead Positive feedback may occur resulting in a higher

temperature continuing to rise or low temperature falling still.

This may lead to death.

Medical Technology &
Sport
Keyhole surgery uses fibre optics. This makes it possible for
surgeons to repair damaged joints (inc. ligaments in knee)
which precision and little damage. Only a small incision is made
= less blood & damage to joint - recovery is much quicker.

Prostheses are artificial body parts

designed to help the patient regain
relatively normal function and/or
appearance. The design of prostheses has
improved over the years so many
disabled athletes can compete at high
levels. (eg dynamic response feet literally
provide a spring in their step). Damaged
joints (eg knee) can be repaired with
small prosthetic implants to replace
damaged bone ends. This restores
mobility and free the patient from a life of
Too Little Exercise
Over prolonged periods of time, too
little exercise can have side effects:
reduced physical endurance, lung capacity,
stroke volume and maximum heart rate.
increased resting heart rate. blood pressure and
storage of fat in the body.
increased risk of CHD, type 2 diabetes, some
cancers, weight gain and obesity.
impaired immune response due to lack of
natural killer cells.
increased LDL levels and reduced HDL levels.
reduced bone density = higher risk of
osterperosis.
Too Much Exercise
Overtraining can lead to chronic fatigue and
poor athletic performance

It can also lead to increased wear and tear on

joints. Damage to cartilage in synovial joints
can lead to infammations and a form of athritis.
Ligaments also damage. Bursae the cushion
joint parts become infamed and tender
Also, there is correlation between intense exercise and the risk of
infections like colds and sore throats. It could be caused by increased
pathogen exposure or a suppression of the immune system.

There is some evidence that the number and activity of some cells of
the immune system may be decrease in post vigorous exercise
recovery.

It may also be true that damage to muscles and release of hormones

(eg adrenaline) during exercise may cause an infammatory response
which could also suprpress the immune system.
Effect of Drugs on
Genes
Some drugs (eg anabolic steroids) are closely related to natural steroid
hormones.

They can pass directly through cell membranes and be carried into the
nucleus bound to a receptor molecule.

These hormone/receptor complexes act as transcription factors. They bind

to the promoter region of a gene allowing RNA polymerase to start
transcription.

As a result more protein synthesis takes place in the cells.

EXAMPLE: Testosterone increases protein synthesis in muscle cells,

increasing the size & strength of muscle tissue.

Peptide hormones dont enter cell directly but they bind with receptors on
the CSM which starts a process that results in the activation of a
transcription factor within the nucleus.

EXAMPLE: Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates the production of red blood cells.

THis means that blood carries more oxygen, which is good for an athlete.
Effect of Drugs on
Genes
RNA
poly
mer r RN
A p oly
meras
e

ase f o
(site ent)
ion chm
reg atta
Gene
oter
om
Pr
DNA

Genes
Genesare
areswitched
switchedon onby
bysuccessful
successful
formation
formation and attachmentof
and attachment of
transcription
transcription initiation complexto
initiation complex to
the promoter region.
the promoter region.
s
f actor
n
sc riptio
Tran
Genes
Genesremain
remainswitched
switchedoffoffby
bythe
thefailure
failureof
ofthe
the
transcription
transcriptioninitiation
initiationcomplex
complexto toform
formandandattach
attach
to
to the promoter region. This is due to absenceof
the promoter region. This is due to absence of
protein
proteintranscription
transcriptionfactors
factorsororaction
actionofofrepressor
repressor
molecules.
molecules.

RNA Synthesis
transcription
initiation complex
Performance Enhancing
Drugs & Ethics
Some athletes feel the need to use illegal performance-enhancing
substances to pursue excellence. Others may feel the need to follow
suit, in order to keep up.

Ethical frameworks can be used on both sides of the argument:

- right and duties
- maximising the amount of good in the world
- making decisions for yourself
- leading a virtuous life

EXAMPLE - doping could be not acceptable because of athletes right

to a fair competition. However, it could equally be considered that
athletes have a right to exercise autonomy, to achieve their best
performance.
Performance Enhancing
Drugs & Ethics
In order to maintain if something is ethical or not, a reasonable
argument needs to be executed.

Ethical Absolutists see things as very clear cut, black and white. They
would take one of two stances:
- It is never acceptable for athletes to use such substances even if
legal or
- It is always acceptable for athletes to use any substance available to
them to compete effectively, even if there are health risks.

Ethical Relativists would realise that people and circumstances may be

different
- EXAMPLE It is wrong for athletes to use performance enhancing
substances but there may be some occasions when it is acceptable.
Topic 8
Grey Matter
Responding to the
Environment
Animals have a fast acting nervous systems which
contain neurones (nerve cells) that carry information
in the form of impulses.
In mammals, sensory neurones carry impulses from
receptors to a central nervous system (CNS) which
consists of the brain & spinal crd.
The CNS incorporates relay neurones, and processes
info from lots of sources and sends the via motor
neurones to effector organs (eg. muscles and glands)
The Pupil Refex
Pupil Constricted t ract Pupil Dilated
con
scles
r mu
a
cul
Cir
x
les Rela
sc rela
x Radial Muscles Contra
dial Mu les ct
Ra c
lar m us
u
Circ

The iris contains antagonistic muscles (radial and circular) which control iris size
under the infuence of the autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
In bright light photoreceptors (eg
In low light situations, fewer impulses
rods) in the retina cause nerve
reach the retina, hence fewer reach
impulses to pass along the optic
coordinating centre in the brain.
nerver to a group of nerve cells in the
brain. Impules are sent down sypathetic
motor neurones to radial muscles of
These cells then send impulses along
the iris.
the parasympathetic motor neurones
to the circular muscles of the iris. This causes radial muscles to contract
and the pupil become dilated.
The muscles contact, reducing the
diameter of the pupil so less light This allows more light in.
enters the eye which prevents retinal
 Plant Sensitivity -
Photoperiodism
Plants fower and their seeds germinate in response to changes in day length.

The photoreceptor here is Phytochrome (blue-green pigment), and comes in

two forms : Red(PR) and Far-red(PFR)

Abs ge of
nat or r an
ura bs ger a
e ri dic
l (re Converts to
y t rig h o to p
ligh d) ma rent p ses
t Reverts quickly in ffe o n
di resp
PR PFR
Inactive Active
Far Red Light

reverts slowly in the dark

as relatively unstable
 Plant Sensitivity -
Phototropism
Tropisms are growth responses in plants, where direction of growth is
determined by the direction of external stimulus.

If a plant grows towards a stimulus, it is a positive trophic response.

In plant shoots, light and auxins have an effect:

With
Withillumination
illumination
from When
Whenlight
lightcomes
from allsides,
all sides,an
an comes
even distribution from
from just oneside,
just one side,
even distribution
of auxins
auxinsmovemovealong
ofauxins
auxinsmoves
moves along
down the
the shaded sideof
shaded side
down fromthe
from the Auxins
of
shoot tip and Auxinsare
arebroken
broken the
theshoot,
shoot,
shoot tip and down
downbybyenzymes
enzymes
causes elongating
elongatingthem
causeselongation
elongation them
of which
whichbends
bendsto totip
of cells acrossthe
cells across the tip
zone of elongation towards the light.
towards the light.
zone of elongation
Comparison of communication
and coordination methods in plants
and mammals
Nervous
system in
mammals
Electrochemical changes giving an
electrical impulse. Chemical
neurotransmitters used at most
synapses.
rapid acting
Usually associated with
short term changes (eg
muscle contraction)
Response is very localised
and specific to (eg)
muscle cell or gland
Endocrine
system in
mammals
Chemical hormones from
endocrine glands carried in
blood plasma around
circulatory system.
slower acting
Can control long term responses (eg
growth). Some involved in
homeostasis (eg blood sugar levels).
Some can be relatively fast (eg
adrenaline response)
Response can be
widespread or targeted
to specific cells.
Tropisms in
plants
Chemical growth substances
(eg auxins) diffusing from
cell to cell. Some may go in
phloem
slower acting
Controls long term growth
responses (eg cell
elongation)
Response may be widespread but
normally restricted to cells within a
short distance of the growth
substance being released.
 nn
s hwa
Nucleu c

Structure
by s
m ade
r
d laye
Schwann Cell lipi
Axon

of
Sc
hw
an
Cel n
ce al
l Bo in es

on
dy ll
rm ch

Ax
e
T an
Motor Neurone no Br

Neurones
s de
cleu of
Dendrites conduct impulses towards cell Nu Dendrites R
an
body. vi
er
Axons conduct impulses away from cell
body.
l
Cell Bo
dy cel
Neurones can carry waves of action an
n
hw
potentials (electrical activity) over long Sc
Sensory Neurone Ax
distances. The membranes are polarised. on

Myelin sheath wrapped is a fatty insulating Dendrites

layer. This increases the speed of conduction
through SALTATORY CONDUCTION: Ce
ll B
od
y
Schwann cells wrap around the neurone go
nourish and protect it and produce myelin Relay Neurone
sheath. Ax
on
Dendrite
There are small gaps left uncovered called s
nodes of Ranvier.

Action potentials jump from one node of

Ranvier to the next, increasing conduction ld
several axons he
speed. a move
together making
Nerve
Transmission of a nerve
impulse
In a resting neurone, there are more sodium (Na ) ions
+

outside the cell membrane than inside, and more potassium

(K+) inside that outside.

The inside of resting neurone has a negative charge in

comparison, due to presence of chloride ions and -ve
charged proteins = p.d. of about -70mV.
This is resting potential. The membrane is called Polarised.

The sodium-potassium pump creates concentration

gradients across the membrane (Na+ move out, K+ in).

Potassium ion channels allow facilitated diffusion of K + out of

the membrane (down concentration gradient) which creates
that uneven charge.
Transmission of a nerve
impulse
If a neurone cell is stimulated by an impulse, voltage
dependant Na+ channels open and Na+ diffuse in.

This increases the positive charge inside the cell = charge

across membrane is reversed.

The membrane now carries a p.d. of +40mV. This is the

action potential and the membrane is said to be polarised.

As the charge reverses, the Na+ channels shut and voltage-

dependant K+ ions channels open so more potassium ions
leave the axon, which repolarises the membrane.

The membrane can become hyperpolarised, when the p.d.

drops below the resting potential. Voltage-dependant K +
channels close. K+ diffuses back into the axon to recreate the
resting potential.
Transmissio
n of a nerve
impulse
Movement of ions
in and out of
membrane during
an action potential.
Propagation of a nerve impulse along
an axon At
Atresting
restingpotential,
potential,
there is a positive
there is a positive The
1 High Na+ Thechange
changeininp.d.
p.d.ininthe
themembrane
membraneadjacent
adjacentto tothe
the1st
1st
charge
chargeon onthe
the action potential initiates
action
At potential initiatesaasecond
secondaction
actionpotential.
potential.
outside, and
outside, and Atthe
thesite
siteof
ofthe
thefirst
first
negative action
actionpotential,
potential,thethe
High K+ axon negativecharge
charge
inside, voltage
voltagedependant
dependantNa+ Na+ 2nd Action Potential
inside, whichhigh
which high K + Na+
Sodium
Sodium
ion channels close
ion channels close and and 3
concentration voltage
voltagedependant
dependantK+ K+
concentration
outside channels open. K+
channels open. K+ leaveleave
outsideand andhigh
high
Potassium the
theaxon,
axon,repolarising
repolarisingthe the
Potassium
1st Action Potential
concentration membrane.
membrane. TheThe
Na+ concentration
membrane
membraneisis
2 inside.
inside.
hyperpolarised
hyperpolarised K+ Na+

stimulation AA3rd3rdaction
actionpotential
potential 3rd Action Potential
isisinitiated K+ Na+
initiated bythe
by the2nd.
2nd.
localised electric current
InInthis
thisway
waylocal
local
4
Na+ electric
electric currentscause
currents cause
the
thenerve
nerveimpulse
impulseto to
When
Whenstimulated,
stimulated,voltage
voltagedependant
dependantNa+
Na+channels
channels move along the axon.
move along the axon.
open
openand
andNa+
Na+fow fowinto
intoaxon
axon==depolarisation.
depolarisation. At
Atthe
thesite
siteof
ofthe
the1st,
1st,
Localised
Localised electric currents are generatedininthe
electric currents are generated the K+ move back
K+ move back into into K+ Refractory
Na+
membrane.
membrane.Na+ Na+movemoveinto
intoadjacent
adjacentpolarised
polarised period
axon,
axon,restoring
restoringaction
action
(resting)
(resting) region causing a change in chargeacross
region causing a change in charge across potential.
potential. progress of impulse
this
thispart
partof
ofmembrane
membrane

Action potentials are all or Right after an action potential

nothing. A bigger stimulus there is a refractory period. This is
increases the frequency of action where a new action potential
potentials - NOT the strength. cannot be generated as Na+
channels cant reopen.
A threshold stimulus must be This ensure that action potentials
applied to produce an action are kept as separate signals, and
potential. are UNIDIRECTIONAL
Synapses
A synapse it the point where one neurone meets another.
At the tip of an axon, an impulse opens up Calcium ion (Ca +) channel,
then triggers the release of a chemical neurotransmitter from synaptic
vesicles.
The neurotransmitter can diffuse across the gap between neurones
(synaptic cleft) and bind to receptors of postsynaptic membrane.
If the neurotransmitter comes from a excitatory neurone, it may open
Na+ channels on the post synaptic membrane which will trigger a new
action potential in the postsynaptic neurone.
Some neurotransmitters are inhibitory, and may open Chloride ion
channels on the post synaptic membrane, causing it to be
hyperpolarised and therefore harder to get an above-threshold
response needed to trigger the new action potential.
Synapses
An enzyme is often present in the synaptic cleft to
hydrolyse the neurotransmitter to avoid the response
from repeating.
The neurotransmitter may be taken back into
presynaptic membrane to be reused.
As receptors are only on the postsynaptic membrane,
the signal can only be unidirectional.
Synapses also act as junctions and allow nerve
impulses to converge or diverge because one neurone
can meet many others at a single synapse.
 1
Axon

Synaps
es 1 An
Anaction
actionpotential
potentialarrives
arrives

2The
Themembrane
membranedepolarises.
depolarises. sicl
e
Calcium Ve
Calciumions
ionschannels
channelsopen.
open. t ic
Calcium ions enter the
Calcium ions enter the nap
neurone. Sy
neurone.
r
rot ra nsmitte
3 2 Neu
Calcium
Calciumions
ionscause
causesynaptic
synapticvesicles
vesicles
containing
containing neurotransmitter tofuse
neurotransmitter to fuse Ca2+
with the presynaptic membrane.
with the presynaptic membrane.

aptic
4Neurotransmitter Presyn
Neurotransmitterisisreleased
releasedinto
intothe
thesynaptic
synapticcleft. ane
cleft.
3 Membr

5 Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitterbinds
bindswith
with
receptors on the postsynaptic
receptors on the postsynaptic 6Membrane depolarises
membrane.
membrane.Cation
Cationchannels
channels Membrane depolarises
and
andinitiates
initiatesan
anaction
open.
open. Sodium ions fowthrough
Sodium
the open
ions fow
channels.
through potential
potential
action
4
the open channels. 7 Synaptic Cleft

p t ic
e
7When yna ran
Whenreleased
releasedthe
theneurotransmitter
neurotransmitterwill
willbe
betaken
taken s
up Na+ st mb
upacross
acrossthe
thepresynaptic
presynapticmembrane
membrane(whole
(wholeor
or o
P Me
after
after being broken down), or it can diffuse away&&
being broken down), or it can diffuse away
be
bebroken
brokendown
down
5 6
Vision & Human
Photoreceptors
Human eyes have 2 types of photoreceptor cells found in
our retinas.
1) Cones allow colour vision in bright light and are clustered
in the centre of the retina.
2) Rods only provide black and white vision, but are much
more sensitive than cones and work in dim light conditions.
Vision & Human
Photoreceptors
dark
Light energy is absorbed by rhodopsin
which splits into retinal and opsin.
Na+
Na+diffuse
through
diffuse
light Light
Lightbreaks
breaks
throughopen
open down rhodopsin
cation down rhodopsin
Na+ cation totoretinal
channels retinaland
and
The opsin binds to the membrane of channels opsin
opsin
the outer segment of the cell and this Outer
Opsin
Segment Na+ Opsinbinds
bindstotothe
themembrane
membrane
causes sodium ion channels to close. Na+move
movedown
down causing
concentration causing a series of reactionswhich
a series of reactions which
concentration result in the Na+ channels being
gradient result in the Na+ channels being
gradient closed
The inner segment continues to pump closed
sodium ions out of the cell and the
Na+ Na+
Na+actively
membrane becomes hyperpolarised. Inner Na+ Na+actively
actively actively
pumped pumped
pumpedout
Segment pumpedout
out out

This means that glutamine will not be

released across the synapse. Membrane
Membrane
slightly Membrane
Membrane
slightly
depolarised hyperpolarised
hyperpolarised
Glutamine usually inhibits the depolarised
-40mV
-40mV
neurones which connect the rod cells
to the neurones in the optic nerve. No
No
Neurotransmitte Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitte
When there is less inhibition an action r risisreleased isisreleased
released
released
potential forms and is transmitted to and
and bindstoto
binds Na+
bipolar
bipolarcell
cell
the brain. preventing
Bip
ola
preventingitit rN
depolarising
depolarising eur
one
The info from the optic nerve is
processed by the brain in the visual
Cation
Cationchannels
channelsininbipolar
bipolarcell
cellopen
openand
and
cortex. membrane becomes depolarised,
membrane becomes depolarised,
generating
generatingan
anaction
actionpotential
potentialininthe
the
optic nerve neurone.
optic nerve neurone.
The Cerebrum
The cerebral cortex (cerebrum) is the largest
part of the brain.
Its divided into 2 hemispheres connected by a
band of white matter called the Corpus
Callosum.
The cerebrum is associated with advanced
mental activity like language, memory,
calculation, processing info from eyes & ears,
emotion and controlling all voluntary activities.
 The Cerebrum Parietal Lobe
Concerned with
orientation, movement,
sensation, calculation,
Frontal Lobe
some times of recognition
Concerned with the higher
& memory.
brain functions, like
decision making,
reasoning, planning &
consciousness of emotion.
Also, its concerned with Parietal Lobe
forming associations and Occipetal Lobe
with ideas. Frontal Lobe concerned with
It includes the primary processing info from eyes,
motor cortex which has including vision, colour,
neurones that connect shape recognition and
directly to the spinal cord Occipita
l perspective
and brain stem (and onto
Temporal Lobe Lobe
the muscles).

Temporal Lobe
concerned with Cerebullum
processing auditory info, Next Slide for more on
ie hearing, speech, Cerebellum
recognition and also
involved in memory.
The Cerebellum

Co Cerebru
m Hypothalamus
Cal rpus controls thermoregulation
los
um

Thalamus
Basal Ganglia Cerebellum
important for balance &
lalmus coordinating movements
t ha
Hypo

d
l an
G Medulla Oblongata
ry in Cerebellum
ita a controls many body
itu br
P id processes such as heart
M
rate, breathing and blood
Medulla Oblongata pressure

Sp
ina
lC
ord
Critical Windows
Critical Windows (or critical periods) for development are those periods of time where it is
though that the nervous system needs specific stimuli in order to properly develop.
Evidence for critical windows have come from medical observations
EXAMPLE: A child under 10 days who develops cataracts may suffer from permanent visual
damage even if cataracts are removed at a later date
Animal models are also used; EXAMPLE: Hubel and Wiesel used kittens and monkeys as
models to investigate the critical window in visual development because of the similarity of
their visual systems to that of humans.
The animals were deprived of stimulus of light into one eye (monocular deprivation) at
different stages of development and for different lengths of time.
It found that kittens deprived of light in 1 eye at age 4 weeks were effectively permanently
blind in that eye.
Monocular deprivation before 3 weeks and after 3 months had NO effect.

Eye deprived of light during critical period
Axons do not pass nerve impulses to cells in the visual
cortex
Inactive synapses eliminated
Eye has no working connection to the visual cortex and is
effectively blind, even though the cells of the retina and
optic nerve work normally when exposed to light
Eye that remains open during critical period
Axons pass nerve impulses to cells in the visual cortex
Synapses used by active axons are strengthened
Synapses only present for axons coming from the light-
stimulated eye. So the visual cortex can only respond to
this eye.
Animal Rights Issues
The use of animals in scientific study is a controversial
topic.
Animal Rights activists who hold an absolutist view think it
is NEVER right to used animals in medical research.
Medical Researchers hold a more relativist view, that
humans should keep animals well and minimise harm and
suffering as much as possible. The emphasis is on animal
welfare (rights to food, drink, vets and normal
behaviours). Its very similar to EU law.
This all assumes that animals can suffer and experience
pleasure.
A utilitarian ethical framework allows certain animals
Nature, Nurture & Brain
development

Nature: Many of our characteristics develop

solely under the infuence of our genes with
little help from our environment or learning (eg
blood group)
Nurture: Many Characteristics are learnt or
heavily infuenced by our environment (eg hair
length)
Nature, Nurture & Brain
development
Most characteristics are determined by nature and nurture,
or nature via nurture.
We are the result of a mix of genetic and environmental
factors.
Human behaviours, attitudes and skills may have an
underlying genetic basis, but are modified (eg by
experience etc)
EXAMPLE: the chance of developing some cancers has a
genetic basis where are gene (or several) interact to
confer susceptibility to the disease with environmental
factors contributing to the risk of development.
Nature, Nurture & Brain
development
Evidence for the relative roles of nature and nurture in brain development come
from a variety of different sources:
The abilities of newborn babies: The innate abilities that babies exhibit suggest that genes help form
the brain & some behaviours before the baby is born.
Studies of patients with damaged brain areas: Some pxs who have suffered brain damage show the
ability to recover some of their brain function, which demonstrates that some neurones have ability
to change.
Animal experiments: eg Hubel and Weisels experiments on critical windows for sight, suggesting that
stimulation is important in brain development.
Twin Studies: Identical twins obviously share all the same genes. Fraternal (non-identical) twins share
the same number as any other sibling would. Twin studies can estimate the relative contribution of
genes and the environment. Any differences between identical twins must be due to environmental
effects.
Identical twins raised apart in comparison to those raised together are particularly useful for study.
EXAMPLE: If there is a greater difference between those twins raised apart than twins raised together
it suggests some environmental infuence. However, twins raised apart may not have completely
different environments and twins raised together may develop different personalities due to a desire
to be different.
In general if genes have a strong infuence on the development of a characteristic, then the closer
the genetic relationship, the stronger the correlation will be between individuals for that trait.
Cross-cultural studies: Investigations into the visual perceptions of groups from different cultural
backgrounds support the idea that visual cures for depth perception are at least partially learnt.
Habituation

Habituation is a very simple type of learning

which involves the loss in response to a
repeated stimulus which fails to provide any
form of reinforcement (reward or punishment).
It allows animals to ignore unimportant stimuli
so they can concentrate of reinforce stimuli.
Habituation
Investigations
Core Practical
Animal Models
This practical measures the
Invertebrates make for useful animal models for the inner working
of the nervous system. Here, Sea Slugs have been used to
investigate habituation.
time a snail spends Gill
Gillwithdraws
withdrawssiphon
siphon 1 With
withdrawn into its shell when
when stimulatedby
stimulated by Withrepeated
repeatedstimulation,
channels
stimulation,Ca
Ca
2+
2+

water
waterjet
jet channelsbecome
becomeless
lessresponsive
responsive
when you tap its head so less Ca 2+crosses the
2+
so less Ca crosses the
presynaptic
presynapticnerve
nerve
(between the eyes). Siph
on
2 Less
Lessneurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
released.
Gill withdrawal released.
Initially the snail tends to Water Jet Ca2+
hide for a significant length
of time, but as the tapping
continues, the time interval
decreases. Siph
on sensory neurone motor neurone to
from siphon the gill
The snail becomes Water Jet
Gill

habituated to the tap.

3There
Thereisisless
lessdepolarisation
depolarisation
ofofpostsynaptic
postsynapticmembrane,
Ethical and Safety concerns After
Afterseveral
severalminutes
repeated
minutesofof so
membrane,
so no action potentialisis
no action potential
repeatedstimulation
stimulationofof
need to be addressed here the
thesiphon
siphonthe
thegill
gillno
no
triggered
triggeredininmotor
motorneurone.
neurone.
longer withdraws.
longer withdraws.
as animals are used.
Dopamine & Parkinsons
Parkinsons disease is associated with the death of a group of dopamine
secreting neurones in the brain (midbrain). This results in the reduction of
dopamine levels in the brain.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which is active in neurones in the frontal
cortex, brain stem and spinal cord. It is associated with the control of
movement & emotional responses.
Treatments for Parkinsons are varied, with most aiming to increase the
concentration of dopamine in the brain.
Dopamine cannot move into the brain from the bloodstream but the L-Dopa
molecule, which is used to make dopamine, can which could help to relieve
symptoms.
The symptoms of Parkinsons are:
muscle tremors
muscle stiffness & slow movement
poor balance and walking problems
difficulties with speech and breathing
depression
Serotonin & Depression
Serotonin is another neurotransmitter, but this time
its linked to feelings of reward & pleasure. Clinical
depression (prolonged feelings of sadness, anxiety,
hopelessness, loss of interest, restlessness,
insomnia... etc...) is attributed to low serotonin levels.
Treatments for depression often involve drugs which
can increase serotonin concentration in synapses.
EXAMPLE: Prozac is a Selective Serotonin Reuptake
Inhibitor (SSRI) that blocks the process which
removes serotonin from the synapse.
Drug effects on
synapses
1) Some drugs affect the synthesis, or storage, of neurotransmitters. (eg L-dopa used in the
treatment of Parkinsons disease is converted into dopamine, increasing the
concentration of dopamine to reduce the symptoms of the disease)
2) Some drugs may affect the release of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic
membrane.
3) Some drugs may affect the interaction between the neurotransmitter and the receptors
on the postsynaptic membrane
~ some may be stimulatory by binding to the receptors and opening the sodium ion
channels - eg dopamine agonists (mimic dopamine due to shape, used in Parkinsons
treatment) bind to dopamine receptors and trigger action potentials.
~ some may be inhibitory, blocking the receptors on the postsynaptic membranes and
preventing the neurotransmitters binding.
4) Some drugs prevent the reuptake of the neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic
membrane - eg Ecstasy (MDMA) prevents the reuptake of Serotonin. The effect is the
maintenance of a high serotonin concentration in the synapse which brings about moods
changes in MDMA users. One of the side effects of MDMA is depression as a result of the
loss of serotonin from neurones, due to lack of reuptake. Prozac is a SSRI that blocks the
reuptake of serotonin in the treatment of depression.
5) Some drugs may inhibit enzymes involved in breaking down the neurotransmitter in the
synaptic cleft, resulting in maintenance of a high concentration of the neurotransmitter in
the synapse and therefore repeated action potentials (or inhibition) of the presynaptic
cleft.
Drug effects on
synapses

Neurotransmitter
synthesis &
storage

Presynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter breakdown
release

Neurotransmitter
reuptake

Postsynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitter receptor
binding
Drug development
We now know that chemicals which affect membrane-bound proteins or
mimic the effect of naturally occurring neurotransmitters can have a
significant effect on defective or normal neural pathways. The more we
know about the specific proteins (and their shapes) active in cells, the
more likely we can find complementary chemicals with the same effect.
Traditionally most medicines come from existing plant-based chemicals.
However, info from the human genome project could help develop
drugs that are highly specific so that they can be effective in lower
doses with fewer side effects.
Pharmacogenomics links pharmaceutical expertise with the knowledge
of the genome project.
New drugs have to go through rigorous testing before they go to market
(see unit 2)
Brain Imaging
Techniques
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans use a
strong magnetic field and radio waves to make images of
soft tissues (like the brain). They align hydrogen nuclei to
the magnetic field. MRI scans can be used in the
diagnosis of tumours, strokes, brain injuries and
infections. They can also track progress of degenerative
diseases like Alzheimer's by comparing scans over a
period of time.
Functional MRI (fMRI) scan are a modified MRI
technique which allows you to see the brain in action
doing live tasks, as it detects activity in the brain,
followed by oxygen uptake in active bran areas.
Computerised axial tomography (CAT or CT) scans
use 1000s of narrow collimated x-ray beams rotated
around the px. Like MRI they only capture a snapshot in
time, so only look at structures and damage rather than
functions. The resolution is worse than MRI so small
structures in the brain cannot be distinguished. X-rays
are ionising, so have potential to harm.
Drug development &
The Human Genome
Project
A genome is ALL the DNA of an organism. The Human
Genome Project (HGP) was an international project which
determined the base sequence of the human genome. Many
new genes have been identified, inc. some which are
responsible for inherited diseases.
In addition, new drug targets have been identified. Info about
a pxs genome may help Drs to prescribe the correct drug at
the correct dose. The HGP may also allow some prevention of
diseases. If the genes you carry are known, then you may
understand what disease youre at risk from.
The HGP also provides info about evolution and increases our
knowledge of physiology and cell biology.
The HGP has also noted other animals and plants genome.
The Human Genome
Project & Ethical Issues
Here are some ethical questions about the HGP:
Who owns the information? Some groups have applied for
patents on genetic sequences, so they have ownership, or
have to be paid for any treatments developed using the
knowledge of that sequence.
Who is entitled to know the information about YOUR genome
if it is sequenced? Should insurance companies know?
Employers?
Will genetic screen lead to the genetic selection of humans
(eugenics) and designer babies?
Who will pay for the development of new therapies and
drugs? Many possible highly specialised treatments are
expensive and will only be suitable for a few people.
Use of GM to make
drugs
GM plants may be useful for the production of edible drugs (eg vaccines) that can easily
be transported and stored in plant products (eg bananas or potatoes).
Useful genes can be transferred into crop plants by using a vector, gene guns (pellets
coated with DNA) or a virus.
Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sequences and DNA Ligase (enzyme)
can stick DNA pieces together.
These make it possible to insert specific DNA sequences in to the GM organism. Large
numbers of identical GM plants can easily be produced.

Transgenic Animals (animals with a human gene added) can be used to produce drugs
that can be harvested from their milk or semen.
Liposomes and viruses are vectors used to insert genes into animal cells. Drugs produces
from transgenic animals include the blood clotting factors used to treat haemophilia.

Microorganisms such as bacteria are the most common target for genetic modification as
the are relatively easy targets for gene transfer and can be grown rapidly in large
quantities in fermenters.
The drugs made can be extracted and purified using downstream processing. Insulin to
treat type II diabetes is an eg of a drug produced from GM micro-organisms.
Genetically Modified
Plants Bac
teri
a

Chromosom Plasmid carrying desired gene & ant

ibiotic resistance
e gene(marker gene)

insertion
or of new
gene
DNA gun et
Bull or

Pellets coated in DNA Virus DNA

genes incorporated into the

plant DNA of some cells. incubation in growth medium,
with antibiotic

only cells with the

new genes survive

plant growth substances Micropropagation: cells grow in sterile

stimulate shoot and root culture medium, with sucrose, amino
growth acids, inorganic ions and plant growth
substances.

transgenic plant - plantlets separated

all cells contain and grown into full
new gene size plants
Concerns over GMOs
genetic pollution through cross-pollination
antibiotic resistance genes are used to identify GM
bacteria, which could lead to antibiotic resistance in
other microbes
GM crops could out-compete other plants and resist
herbicides - Become Super-weeds. They could damage
natural food chains, resulting in damaged environment,
because they would encourage farms to use selective
herbicides to kill everything but the crop
GM crops may not produce fertile seeds. This prevents
farmers collecting seed and replanting, so may need to
return to biotech company to buy new seeds for each
planting - this could increase the price.