Common Machining Processes

Too Too
l l
(a) Straight turning (b) Cutting off

Cutter

End mill

(c) Slab milling (d) End milling

FIGURE 8.1 Some examples of common

machining processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Orthogonal Cutting
t

Shiny surface
Rough surface
Tool face
Chip
- +
Tool
Shear plane
Rake angle
" V Flank
Relief or
! clearance
to
angle

Workpiece Shear angle

(a)

Rough surface Tool

Chip face
- +
Tool
Primary
Rake angle
shear zone
"
V Flank FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-
Relief or
to clearance
dimensional cutting process, or orthogonal
angle cutting. (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-
Rough defined shear plane, also known as the Merchant
surface model; (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-
(b) defined shear plane.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Chip Formation
Rake angle,
A
Chip
(90 - F +
Too A)
l Vc
d (F -
Vs
A) A
A (90 -
F C F
Workpiece A)
B V

C
Shear A F
plane (F -
O B A)
(a) (b)

FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in

diagram
8.3 in cutting.
the cutting
(b) Velocity
zone.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Secondary shear zones

Types of
Tool

Chip Chip
Tool
Primary
shear Workpiece Primary BUE

Chips
zone shear zone

(a) (b) (c)

Low
shear
strain
High
shear
strain

(d) (e)

FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished)

FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal surface on the tool side of a
cutting and their micrographs: (a) continuous chip with continuous chip produced in
narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone turning.
at the tool-chip interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge;
(d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous
chip. Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K.Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Hardness in Cutting
Zone
Chip

316
Built-up
edge Hardness (HK)
474 306
661 372
329
588
289 (b)
565 492
331
325
588
289
286
371
418
656 604
432 684 383
386
589
578 261 306361 281
656
466 704567
289
587 281
704 704512639 565 327
410 308
341
734770655
297 409 544 503 377 231

229 317 201

266 251

Workpiece

230

(a) (c)

FIGURE (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that some
8.6
edge are as much in
regions as the
three times harder than the bulk workpiece. (b) Surface finish in
built-up
turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Chip Breakers
Chip breaker

Before
Chip
Rake face
of tool Clamp
After
Too Chip breaker
l
Too
l

Workpiece FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the

action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip
(a) (b) breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the
chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a
Rake face cutting tool. (c) Grooves on the rake face of cutting
tools, acting as chip breakers. Most cutting tools now
are inserts with built-in chip-breaker features.

Radius Positive rake 0 rake

(c)

FIGURE 8.8 Various chips

produced in turning: (a) tightly
curled chip; (b) chip hits
workpiece and breaks; (c)
continuous chip moving radially
outward from workpiece; and (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) chip hits tool shank and breaks
off. Source:
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
After Materials,
G. 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Boothroyd.Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Oblique Cutting

z
a Top view

Too At
l
Ac
Chip

y i o a Too i = 0
l
Chip
i = 15
o
i
Workpiece
Workpiece i = 30
x
(b)
(a) (c)

FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top
inclination
8.9 angle,
view, i. (c) Types
showing of chips produced with different
the
inclination angles.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Right-Hand Cutting Tool

k
an
Sh

is
Ax
Side-rake Face
angle, + Toolholde
(SR) Cutting edge
r Clamp
Back-rake angle, +
(BR) Nose radius screw
Axis
Flank Clamp
End-cutting Insert
edge angle Side-relief angle
Side-cutting edge angle (SCEA) Seat or shim
(ECEA)
Clearance or end-relief angle

Axis
(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool for

turning. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-
steel bars, they are now replaced by inserts of carbide or other tool materials
of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Cutting
A
Forces A

Too Chip FIGURE 8.11 (a) Forces

l
Chip R
V acting on a cutting tool in
F Ft
B Fs Too two-dimensional cutting. Note
Fc F l
N Fc V
B-
that the resultant forces, R, must
Fs A
Ft
A be collinear to balance the
Fn R
R F F Workpiece forces. (b) Force circle to
B
Workpiece N determine various forces acting
in the cutting zone. Source:
(a) (b) After M.E. Merchant.

Cutting Friction
force wt cos ( coefficient
Ft + Fc tan
o
= tan
Fc = R cos ( ) = )
sin cos ( = Fc Ft tan
)
+

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Cutting
mm/rev
Data TABLE 8.1 Data f 4130 steel.
on orthogonal cutting o ut uf /ut
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 (in.-lb/in3
200
! = 5 800

Fc (lb) Ft (lb) 103 ) us uf (%)

150 25 20.9 2.55 1.46 56 380 224 320 209 111 35
Ft (lb)

15 400
t o = 0.0025 in.; w = 0.475 in.; V = 90 ft / m in; tool: high-speed

(N)
10 20 steel. 31.6 1.56 1.53 57
35 254 102 214 112 102 48
50
25 40 35.7 1.32 1.54 57 232 71 195 94 101 52
100 30 45 41.9 1.06 1.83 62 232 68 195 75 120 62
0
35 0
40 TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of
250 2200
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.012 9445 steel.
0.008 uf / u t
Feed (in./rev) V Fc Ft ut us uf (%)
FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a function of +10 197 17 3.4 1.05 46 370 273 400 292 108 27
rake
angle and feed in orthogonal cutting of AISI 400 19 3.1 1.11 48 360 283 390 266 124 32
1112
cold-rolled steel. Note that at high rake 642 21.5 2.7 0.95 44 329 217 356 249 107 30
angles, the
thrust force is negative. A negative thrust 1186 25 2.4 0.81 39 303 168 328 225 103 31
Thomse t o = 0.037 in.; w = 0.25 in.; t ool: cemented
force has
n. carbide.
important implications in the design -10 400 16.5 3.9 0.64 33 416 385 450 342 108 24
of machine
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
tools andMaterials,
in controlling the stability
5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid of the 637 19 3.5 0.58 30 384 326 415 312 103 25
cutting 2008, Pearson
Education ISBN After
process.Source: No. S. 1160 22 3.1 0.51 27 356 263 385 289 96 25
0-13-227271-7
 Shear Force& Normal
Force 1
mm2
2 3 0 1
mm2
2 3
0
320 320
280 1200 280
A = 20 to 40 1200
240 240

200 200 A
800 20
25 800

(N)
(N)

(lb)
160 160
(lb)

30
Fs

Ft
35
120 120
400 40 400
80 80 S
T = 50,000
40 psi 40
0
00 1 2 3 4 5 6 00 1 2 3 4 5 6
As (in2 x 10-3) As (in2 x 10-3)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.13 (a) Shear force and (b) normal force as a function of the area of the
shear plane and the rake angle for 85-15 brass. Note that the shear stress in the
shear plane is constant, regardless of the magnitude of the normal stress,
indicating that the normal stress has no effect on the shear fow stress of the
material. Source: After S. Kobayashi and E.G.Thomsen.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Shear Stress on Tool Face

Tool
face

Sliding
Too
Sticking !
l
"
Stresses on tool face Flank face
Tool tip

FIGURE 8.14 Schematic illustration of the distribution of normal and shear stresses at
the tool-chip interface (rake face). Note that, whereas the normal stress increases
continuously toward the tip of the tool, the shear stress reaches a maximum and
remains at that value (a phenomenon known as sticking; see Section 4.4.1).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Shear-Angle Relationships
50

40 T in FIGURE (a) Comparison

Shear angle, # (deg.)

60
" =0 experimental
8.15 and
of theoretical
Alu

Eq
Eq . (8
relationships.
shear-angle More analyti
m

30 .20 40

# (deg.)
.( )
in u

8.
21 studies haverecent cal
resulted in better
m

Lead )
20
20
Mild steel
agreement with experimental
Co
ppe 0 between
data. (b) the shear angle and
Relation
10 r ! = 10 30 50 70 (deg.)
the friction
angle for various alloys and
0 0.5 1 2 cutting speeds. Source: After S.
230 220 210 0 10 30 40 50 60 =0 Kobayashi.
20 (! -
") (b)

(a)

Merchant [Eq. Mizuno [Eqs. (8.22)-

(8.20)] (8.23]
= for > 15
= 45 +
2 = 15 for < 15

Shaff
Manufacturing Processes forerEngineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson [Eq.
Education ISBN No.
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(8.21
 Specific Energy

Specific
Material W-s/mm 3
Energy hp-min/in3

Aluminum alloys 0.4-1.1 0.15-0.4

Cast irons 1.6-5.5 0.6-2.0
Copper alloys 1.4-3.3 0.5-1.2
High-temperature alloys 3.3-8.5 1.2-3.1
Magnesium alloys 0.4-0.6 0.15-0.2
Nickel alloys 4.9-6.8 1.8-2.5
Refractory alloys 3.8-9.6 1.1-3.5
Stainless steels 3.0-5.2 1.1-1.9
Steels 2.7-9.3 1.0-3.4
Titanium alloys 3.0-4.1 1.1-1.5
At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency;

multiply the energy by 1.25 for dull tools.

TABLE 8.3 Approximate Specific-Energy

Requirements in Machining Operations

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Chip 600
Temperatures in

600 00
Cutting
5
mm
Temperature (C) 0 0.5 1.0
1.5 1100
2000
Work material: AISI

Local temperature at tool-chip interface (F)

450
52100 Annealed: 188 1800

650
1400 HB

n
400

70

Flank surface temperature (F)

i
ft / m n

550 ft/ mi
1300 Tool material: K3H 700 900

0
55 0 1600 3
Too V= carbide

00
360

65 1200
0 l 1400
38
0
600

600 700
500

1100

C
1200 2 00
130 3 00 Feed: 0.0055 in./rev
80 1000 (0.14 mm/rev) 1000
30 2 00 500
500
900 800
Workpiece
800 600 300
400
FIGURE 8.1 Typical 700 400
0 .008 .016 .024 .032 .040 . .056 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
temperature distribution in the 048 Fraction of tool-chip
cutting zone. Note the severe Distance from tool tip (in.) contact length measured
in the direction of chip flow
temperature gradients within
(a) (b)
the tool and the chip, and that the
workpiece is relatively cool.
/
Source: After G.Vieregge.
FIGURE 8.2 Temperature distribution in turning as a function of
1.2Y f 3 V cutting speed:
T= (a) fank temperature; (b) temperature along the tool-chip
toc K interface. Note that the rake-face temperature is higher than
that at the fank surface. Source: After
B.T. Chao and K.J.Trigger.
T ool
FIGURE 8.18 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting pi ece
or k

Energy (%)
transferred to the tool, workpiece, and chip as a function of W
the cutting speed. Note that most of the cutting energy is Chip
carried away by the chip (in the form of heat), particularly as
speed increases.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Cutting speed
 Terminology in
Turning
Feed Depth of cut
(mm/rev or in./rev) (mm or in.)

Chip

Too
l

FIGURE 8.19 Terminology used in a turning operation on a lathe, where f is the feed (in
mm/rev or in./rev) and d is the depth of cut. Note that feed in turning is equivalent to
the depth of cut in orthogonal cutting (see Fig. 8.2), and the depth of cut in turning is
equivalent to the width of cut in orthogonal cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Rake
face
Rake face
Crater
Flank wear
Depth-of-cut line Tool Wear
Crater wear
wear VB
depth Tool R Nose VBmax
radius Flank face
(KT)

Flank Flank
wear face Depth-of-cut line
(a)

Taylor tool life

Rake face Rake face
equation:
Flank wear Crater wear

Flank face
Flank face VTn= C

(b) (c)

Thermal BUE
cracking

Flank face
Rake face
TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various
cutting tools.
(d) (e)
High-speed 0.08-
steels Cast 0.2
FIGURE 8.20 Examples of wear in cutting alloys Carbides 0.1-
tools. (a) Flank wear; (b) crater wear; (c) Ceramics 0.15
chipped cutting edge; (d) thermal cracking on
0.2-0.5
rake face; (e) fank wear and built-up edge;
(f) catastrophic failure (fracture). Source: 0.5-0.7
Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Effect of
Workpiece
120 50
m/min
100 150 200 250 0.1
on Tool
0.2
m/s
0.3 0.4

Life b c
e
100

Pearli
80
a
d
Tool life
80

te
(min)
40

-fer r
Mart ens
60

Tool life

it e
he

Sp
0

(min)
100 Cutting
300 speed
500 700 roi
40 di
900 ze

ti c i
d
(ft/min) Hardness
20
(HB) Ferrite Pearlite
a. As cast 265 20% 80% 0
b. As cast 215 40 60 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Cutting speed (ft/min)
c. As cast 207 60 40
d. Annealed 183 97 3
e. Annealed 170 100 _
(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.21 Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given
in terms of the time (in minutes) required to reach a fank wear land of a specified
dimension. (a) Ductile cast iron; (b) steels, with identical hardness. Note in both figures
the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Tool-Life
Curves C
m/min 800 1000 1200 1400
400
300 200 Feed constant,
50 3000
300 speed variable
100
60 Speed constant,
100 40 feed variable

Tool life (min)

20
Tool life (min)

10
High-spe

Ce
Cast allo

20 6
ra
Ca

mi
4
rbi

c
10 2
ed

de
y

5 1
n 0.6

0.2
1 1500 1800 2100 2400
100 300 1000 5000 10,000 Temperature (F)
Cutting speed (ft/min) Work material: Heat-resistant alloy
Tool material:
Tungsten carbide
Tool life criterion:
(a)
0.024 in. (0.6 mm) flank wear
(b)
FIGURE 8.22 (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The
negative inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life
equations. (b) Relationship between measured temperature during cutting and
tool life (fank wear). Note that high cutting temperatures severely reduce
tool life. See also Eq. (8.30). Source: After H.Takeyama and Y. Murata.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Tool Wear
C
500 700 900
Crater wear rate a 1100 b c
(in3/min x 10-6)
20 0.30

mm3/min
10 0.15

0 0
800 1200 1600 2000 Rake face
Average tool-chip interface
temperature (F)

FIGURE 8.23 Relationship

between crater- wear rate and Crater wear
average tool-chip interface
temperature in turning: (a) high-
speed-steel tool; (b) C1 carbide;
(c) C5 carbide. Note that crater
wear increases rapidly within a
narrow range of temperature.
Source: After K.J.Trigger and B.T.
Chao.
TABLE Allowable average wear Chip Flank face

cutting tools
8.5 in various
lands for operations.
Allowable Wear Land (mm) FIGURE 8.23 Interface of chip (left)
Operation High-Speed Steels Carbides and rake face of cutting tool (right)
Turning 1.5 0.4 and crater wear in cutting AISI 1004
Discolorati
steel at 3 m/s of (585
the ft/min).
tool indicates
Face milling 1.5 0.4
presence
on the high
End milling 0.3 0.3
Drilling 0.4 0.4 of
temper). Note how the crater-wear
temperature (loss
Reaming 0.15 0.15 pattern coincides of with the
discoloration pattern. Compare
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering distributi
this pattern show
with i theFi temperature
8.1 Sour
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Courtesy
on ofn n g. 6. ce:
2008, Pearson P.K.Wright.
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Acoustic Emission and Wear
mm in. in. mm

Maximum crater depth

1.5 0.15

Mean flank wear

0.050
0.005
1.0 0.040 r wear 0.004 0.1
e
0.030 Crat 0.003
r 0.002 0.05
0.5 0.020 nk wea
Fl a 0.001
0 0.010
0 0 0

Mean RMS (mV) 1500

1000

500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Elapsed machining time (min)

FIGURE 8.25 Relationship between mean fank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic
emission (noise generated during cutting) as a function of machining time. This technique
has been developed as a means for continuously and indirectly monitoring wear rate in
various cutting processes without interrupting the operation. Source: After M.S. Lan and D.A.
Dornfeld.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Roughness (Ra)
m 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 0.8 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
Process in. 2000 1.6 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5

Surface
Rough cutting 1000 500 250 125
63
Flame cutting
Snagging (coarse grinding) Average application
Sawing Less frequent application

Finish

Casting
Sand casting Permanent
mold casting Investment
casting
Die casting

Forming
Hot rolling
Forging
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
FIGURE 8.26 Range of surface
Roller burnishing roughnesses obtained in various
machining processes. Note the wide
range within each group, especially in
turning and boring. (See also Fig. 9.27).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Surfaces in Machining

FIGURE 8.27 Surfaces produced on

steel in machining, as observed with
a scanning electron microscope: (a)
turned surface, and (b) surface
produced by shaping. Source: J.T.
Black and S. Ramalingam.

(a) (b)

Increasing depth
Too
l
FIGURE 8.28 Schematic illustration of a dull tool

of cut
in orthogonal cutting (exaggerated). Note that at
small depths of cut, the rake angle can effectively
become negative. In such cases, the tool may simply
Workpiece Machined
ride over the workpiece surface, burnishing it, surface
instead of cutting.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Inclusions in Free-
Machining
Steels

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.29 Photomicrographs showing various types of inclusions in low-

carbon, resulfurized free- machining steels. (a) Manganese-sulfide inclusions in AISI
1215 steel. (b) Manganese-sulfide inclusions and glassy manganese-silicate-type
oxide (dark) in AISI 1215 steel. (c) Manganese sulfide with lead particles as tails in
AISI 12L14 steel. Source: Courtesy of Ispat Inland Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Hardness of Cutting Tools

100 300 C 500 700
95
Cera
m ics
90
70
Car
85 bid
es 65
60
Hardness (HRA)

80
Ca Cas 55
rb ta
ll o 50
75 ys
on

HRC
to

45
ol
st e

Hig

70 40
el s

h-s

35
FIGURE 8.30 Hardness of various
pee

65
30 cutting-tool materials as a function of
d

25 temperature (hot hardness). The wide range

60
20 in each group of tool materials results from
the variety of compositions and
55
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 treatments available for that group.
Temperature
(F)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
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 Tool Materials
TABLE 8.6 Typical range of properties of various
tool materials.
Property High- Cast WC Carbides TiC Ceramics Cubic Single
Speed Alloys Boron Crystal
Steel Nitride Diamond

Hardness 83-86 HRA 82-84 HRA 90-95 HRA 91-93 HRA 91-95 HRA 4000-5000 HK 7000-8000 HK
Compressive strength

MPa 4100-4500 1500-2300 4100-5850 3100-3850 2750-4500 6900 6900

psi 103 600-650 220-335 600-850 450-560 400-650 1000 1000
Transverse rupture

strength

MPa 2400-4800 1380-2050 1050-2600 1380-1900 345-950 700 1350

psi 103 350-700 200-300 150-375 200-275 50-135 105-200

Impact strength

J 1.35-8 0.34-1.25 0.34-1.35 0.79-1.24 < 0.1 < 0.5 < 0.2
in.-lb 12-70 3-11 3-12 7-11 <1 <5 <2
Modulus of elasticity

GPa 200 520-690 310-450 310-410 850 820-1050

psi 106 30 75-100 45-65 45-60 125 120-150
Density
Melting or decom-
position
kg/m3 8600 8000-8700 10,000-15,000 5500-5800 4000-4500 3500 3500
C 3
lb/in
temperature 1300
0.31
0.29-0.31 1400
0.36-0.54 1400
0.2-0.22 2000
0.14-0.16 1300
0.13 700
0.13

F of hard
Volume 2370 2550 2550 3600 2400 1300
Thermal conductivity,
phase (%)
W/mK 7-15
30-50 10-20
70-90
42-125
17 100
29 95
13 95
500-2000
Coefficient of thermal

expansion, 106 / C 12 4-6.5 7.5-9 6-8.5 4.8 1.5-4.8

The values for polycrystalline diamond are generally lower, except impact strength, which is higher.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Properties of Tungsten-
Carbide Tools
600

Wear (mg), compressive and transverse-

HRA 92.4 1750
Co

rupture strength (kg/mm2)

500 mp 90.5 1500
r es

Vickers hardness (HV)

400 s iv
e st
Ha reng
rd nes th
s
300 88.5 1250
st re ngth
-ru ptu re
200 ver se
ns
Tr a 85.7 1000
750
100
r
We a 500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cobalt content (% by weight)

FIGURE 8.31 Effect of cobalt content in tungsten-carbide tools on

mechanical properties. Note that hardness is directly related to compressive
strength (see Section 2.6.8) and hence, inversely to wear [see Eq. (4.6)].

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Inserts

Toolholde Insert Shank

r
Clamp Lockpin
screw
Seat
Clamp
Insert
Seat
or
shim
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.32 Methods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping, and (b)
wing lockpins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted using threadless lockpins, which
are secured with side screws. Source: Courtesy of Valenite.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Insert
Strength
Increasing strength

100 90 80 60 55 35

Increased chipping and breaking

FIGUR 8.33 edge strength and

E Relative tendency for
chippin and of inserts with various
g
includedbreaking shapes.
angles. Source: Courtesy of
Streng refersInc.
Kennametal, to of the cutting edge shown
th that by the

with hone
Negative

Negative
Negative
with land
and hone

Positive
Negative

Positive
with land

honed

sharp

sharp
Increasing edge strength

FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparations for inserts to

improve edge strength. Source: Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Historical Tool Improvement
100 Carbon steel

26 High-speed steel
Machining time (min) 15 Cast cobalt-based alloys

6 Cemented carbides

3 Improved carbide grades

1.5 First coated grades

1 First double-coated grades
0.7 First triple-coated grades
0.5 Functionally graded triple-coated

1900 !10 !20 !30 !40 !50 !60 !70 !80 !90 !00
Year

FIGURE 8.35 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-

tool materials, with indication of the year the tool materials were
introduced. Note that, within one century, machining time has been
reduced by two orders of magnitude. Source:After Sandvik Coromant.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Coated Tools

TiN
Rake
TiC +
face TiN Al2O 3
Tool TiN
Al2O 3
TiN
TiN coated
Al2O 3
Uncoated TiC +
TiN
Carbi
de
subst
Flank wear rate

FIGURE 8.36 Wear patterns on high-

cutti
speed-steel uncoated and titanium- FIGURE 8.37 Multiphase on a tungsten-
nitride-coated ng for substrate.
coatings Three aluminum
carbide
tools. Note that fank wear alternating by very
separated layers
thin of
layers ofoxide
titaniumare
nitride.
is lower coated tool. the Inserts with as many as 13 layers of coatings
have been made. Coating thicknesses are
typically in the range of 2 to 10 m. Source:
Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Properties of Cutting Tool
Materials
Diamond, cubic boron nitride
Aluminum oxide (HIP)
Hot hardness and wear resistance

Aluminum oxide + 30% titanium carbide

Silicon nitride
Cermets
Coated carbides

Carbides

HSS

Strength and toughness

FIGURE Ranges of properties for various groups of

materials.
8.38 (See also Tables 8.1
cutting-tool
through 8.5.) Tungsten-carbide
insert
Polycrystalline
cubic boron
Braze nitride or diamond
layer
Carbide substrate

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering FIGURE Construction of

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 8.39
boron-nitridepolycrystalline cubic-
or diamond layer on a
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No. tungsten-carbide insert.
0-13-227271-7
 Characteristics of Machining
Commercial tolerances
Process Characteristics ( mm)
Turning Turning and facing operations are performed on all types Fine: 0.05-0.13
of materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate, Rough: 0.13
but medium to high rates can be achieved with turret Skiving: 0.025-
lathes and automatic machines, requiring less skilled 0.05
Boring labor. 0.025
Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics similar
to those produced by turning; stiffness of boring bar is
Drilling impor- tant to avoid chatter. 0.075
Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring
and reaming for improved accuracy; high production rate,
M illing labor skill required depends on hole location and accuracy 0.13-0.25
specified. Variety of shapes involving contours, flat
surfaces, and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low t o
Planing medium production rate; requires skilled labor. 0.08-0.13
Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large
surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill
Shapin required de- pends on part shape. 0.05-0.13
g Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively
small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production;
Broaching labor skill required depends on part shape. 0.025-0.15
External and internal flat surfaces, slots, and contours
with good surface finish; costly tooling; high production
Sawin rate; labor skill required depends on part shape.
g Straight and contour cuts on flats or structural shapes; not
0.8 suitable for hard materials unless the saw has carbide teeth
or is coated with diamond; low product ion rate; requires
only low skilled labor.
TABLE 8.7 General characteristics of
machining processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Lathe
Depth
of cut

Too

Operations
Feed, f
l
(a) Straight turning (b) Taper turning (c) Profiling

(d) Turning and (e) Facing (f) Face grooving

external grooving

(g) Cutting with (h) Boring and (i) Drilling

a form tool internal grooving

Workpiece

FIGURE Variety of machining

that
8.40 can be performed
operationson a
(j) Cutting off (k) Threading (l) Knurling
lathe.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Tool Angles
Side rake Back rake
angle angle
(RA) (BRA) End cutting-
edge angle
(ECEA) Rake face FIGURE 8.41
Wedg Shank Nose
Nose
Designations and symbols
e radius
angle
angle for a right-hand cutting tool.
Side cutting-
The designation right hand
Side relief End relief
Flank face
edge angle means that the tool travels
(SCEA)
angle
(SRA)
angle
(ERA)
from right to left, as shown in
(b) Side view (c) Top
(a) End view view Fig. 8.19.

High-speed steel

Carbide inserts
Material Back Side End Side Side and end Back Side End Side Side and end
rake rake relief relief cutting edge rake rake relief relief cutting edge

Aluminum and

magnesium alloys 20 15 12 10 5 0 5 5 5 15
Copper alloys 5 10 8 8 5 0 5 5 5 15
Steels 10 12 5 5 15 -5 -5 5 5 15
Stainless steels 5 8-10 5 5 15 -5-0 -5-5 5 5 15
High-temperature 0 10 5 5 15 5 0 5 5 45
alloys
TABLE 8.8 General Refractory alloys 0 20 5 5 5 0 0 5 5 15
recommendati for tool Titanium alloys 0 5 5 5 15 -5 -5 5 5 5

ons angles Processes for Engineering

Manufacturing
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 10 5 5 15 -5 -5 5 5 15
in turning. Cast irons 5
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No. Thermoplastics 0 20-30 15-20 10 0 0 20-30 15-20 10
0-13-227271-7
 Turning
Operations

N N
Fc
Workpiece
d Ft Fr

Df Do
Chuck

Too
Too Feed, f l
Feed, f l
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation, showing depth of cut, d,
and feed, f. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b)
Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed
force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away
from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-
dimensional cutting
Manufacturing operation.
Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 CuttingSpeeds for
Turning
mm/rev
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.75
3000 900 Cutting
Cubic boron nitride, Workpiece Material m/min Speed ft/min
diamond, and Aluminum alloys 200-1000 650-3300
2000 600
ceramics Cast iron, gray 60-900 200-3000
Copper alloys 50-700 160-2300
High-temperature alloys 20-400 65-1300
Cutting speed (ft/min)

Cermets Steels 50-500 160-1600

1000 300 Stainless steels 50-300 160-1000
Coated Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-240 300-800

m/min
carbides Titanium alloys 10-100 30-330
Tungsten alloys 60-150 200-500
500 150 Note: (a) The speeds given in t his table are for carbides and
Uncoated ce- ramic cuttin g tools. Speeds for high-speed-steel tools are
carbides lower than indicated. T he higher ranges are for coated carbides
100
300 and cer- mets. Speeds for diamond tools are significantly
higher than any of the values indicated in t he table.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm
(0.02-
200
50 0.5 in.).
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.030 (c) Feeds, f , are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/ r ev
Feed (in./rev) (0.006-
0.040 in./rev).

FIGURE 8.43 The range of

TABLE Approximate Ranges of
applicable cutting speeds and feeds
8.9
Recommended Cutting Speeds for Turning
for a variety of cutting-tool
Operations
materials.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Lathe
Compound
Dead center
Tool rest Carriage
post Spindle (with Tailstock
chuck) Headstock quill
Ways
assembly Tailstock
Spindle assembly
speed Handwheel
selector
Longitudinal &
Cross transverse feed
slide control
Apron
Clutch Bed
Split nut
Feed selector Lead screw
Feed rod
Clutch
Chip pan

FIGURE General view of a typical lathe, showing various major components.

Heidenreich
8.44 &
Source: Courtesy of
Harbeck.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 CNC Lathe
Round turret for
CNC unit Chuck Multitooth
OD operations Drill cutter

Tool
for
turning
or boring

Reamer

Individual
motors

Drill
End turret for ID operations Tailstock
(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.45 (a) A computer-numerical-control lathe, with two turrets; these machines
have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order to take advantage of
advanced cutting tools with enhanced properties;
(b) a typical turret equipped with ten cutting tools, some of which are powered.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Typical CNC Parts

87.9 mm
67.4 mm (3.462") 235.6 mm 50.8 mm 23.8 mm
(2.654") 98.4 mm (9.275") (2") (0.938")
(3.876")

53.2 mm
85.7 mm (3.375") (2.094")
32 threads per in.
78.5 mm
(3.092")
Material: Titanium alloy Material: 52100 alloy steel Material: 1020 Carbon Steel
Number of tools: 7 Number of tools: 4 Number of tools: 8
Total machining time Total machining Total machining
(two operations): time (two time (two
5.25 minutes operations): operations):
6.32 minutes 5.41 minutes
(a) Housing base
(b) Inner bearing (c) Tube reducer
race

FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control

machine tools.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Typical Production Rates
Operation Rate
Turning
Engine Very low to low
lathe Tracer Low to medium
lathe Turret Low to medium
lathe Low to medium
Computer-control lathe Medium to high
Single-spindle chuckers High t o very high
Multiple-spindle Very low
chuckers Low to medium
Boring Low to medium
Drilling Very low
M illing Low to medium
Planing Medium to high
Gear Very low to low
cuttin
Note: g Production rates indicated are relative: Very low is
Broaching
about one or more parts per hour; medium is approximately
Sawing
100 parts per hour; very high is 1000 or more parts per hour.

TABLE 8.10 Typical production rates for various

cutting operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Boring Mill

Cross-rail

Tool head

Workpiece
Work
table

Be
d
Column

FIGURE 8.47 Schematic illustration of the

components of a vertical boring mill.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Drills
Point angle
Tan Taper FIGURE 8.48 Two common
g shank
types of drills: (a) Chisel-point
Drill
diameter drill.The function of the pair
of margins is to provide a
Tang drive
Body diameter bearing surface for the drill
clearance against walls of the hole as
Clearance
Flutes Helix angle Lip-relief Chisel-edge diameter it penetrates into the
angle
angle workpiece. Drills with four
Neck
Web margins (double-margin) are
Shank Straight
diameter shank Chisel edge available for improved drill
Shank length Flute length
Margin guidance and accuracy. Drills
nd
Body Lip La with chip-breaker features
Overall length are also available. (b)
(a) Chisel-point drill Crankshaft drills. These drills
have good centering ability,
and because chips tend to
break up easily, they are

Countersinking
Counterboring

Center drilling
Core drilling
suitable for producing deep

Step drilling

Gun drilling
Reaming
holes.

Drilling
(b) Crankshaft-point drill
High-pressure
coolant

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid operations.
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Speeds and Feeds in Drilling
Surfac Feed, mm/rev (in./rev) Spindle speed
e Drill Diameter (rpm) Drill
Speed Diameter
Workpiece 1.5 mm 12.5 mm 1.5 mm 12.5 mm
Material m/min ft/min (0.060 in.) (0.5 in.) (0.060 in.) (0.5 in.)
Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000
Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000
Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500
Steels 20-30 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-6400 500-800
Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2100-4300 250-500
Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1300-4300 150-500
Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Thermoplastics 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500
Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds
and feeds also depends on t he specific surface finish required.

TABLE 8.11 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Reamers and Taps
Radial rake
Chamfer length
Chamfer angle
Margin
width
Chamfer relief
Land width FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a
helical reamer.
Helix angle, -
Primary
relief angle

Chamfe Chamfe
r relief Ta
r angle
Land p
Nut
FIGURE 8.51 (a) Terminology Rake angle
for a tap; Heel Flute
Cutting
(b) illustration of tapping of
edge
steel nuts in high production.
Hook angle
(a) (b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Typical Machined Parts

(a) (b) (c)

Stepped Drilled and

cavity tapped holes

(d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 8.52 Typical parts and shapes produced by the

machining processes described in Section 8.10.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Conventional and Climb
Milling
D D
Cutter

tc d
Cutter
N
d
v
f
Workpiece
v
Workpiece lc l
Conventional Climb
milling millin
g
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.53 (a) Illustration showing the difference between conventional

milling and climb milling. (b) Slab-milling operation, showing depth of
cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc and workpiece speed, v. (c)
Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth of
cut.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Face
Milling
lc

Insert f Workpiece f Workpiece

v l
v
v
w
FIGURE 8.54 Face-milling
D l
operation showing (a) action
d of an insert in face milling;
Cutter
Cutter w Machined surface (b) climb milling; (c)
lc conventional milling; (d)
dimensions in face milling.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

End cutting-edge angle Peripheral

relief (radial
relief)
Corner
angle
Axial rake, 1

FIGURE Terminology for a

8.55 face- End Radial
milling relief (axial rake,
cutter. relief) 2

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Cutting
Mechanics Lead
Insert angle FIGURE 8.56 The effect of lead
Undeformed chip thickness
angle on the undeformed chip thickness
in face milling. Note that as the lead
Depth of cut, d angle increases, the undeformed chip
f thickness (and hence the thickness of
Feed per tooth, f the chip) decreases, but the length of
contact (and hence the width of the chip)
(a) (b) increases. Note that the insert must be
sufficiently large to accommodate the
increase in contact length.
FIGURE (a) Workpiec
position of the
8.57 cutter
Relative e
inse as it first and the Exit Re-entry -
+
workpiecein
rt engages face th Entry Exit
milling,
insert positions at entry e
and exit near the end(b Cutter
of cut, and (c) examples)
of exit angles of the Milled
surface
insert, showing desirable
(zero Desirable Undesirable
(positiveangle)
or positions.
negative Cutter
In
angle) all
andfigures,
undesirablethe (a) (b) (c)
cutter spindle is
perpendicular to the page.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Milling Operations

Arbor
Cutting
Workpiece Material m/min Speed ft/min
Aluminum alloys 300-3000 1000-10,000
Cast iron, gray 90-1300 300-4200
Copper alloys 90-1000 300-3300
(a) Straddle milling (b) Form milling
High-temperature alloys 30-550 100-1800
Steels 60-450 200-1500
Stainless steelsfor high-speed-steel tools are lower
tools. Speeds 90-500 300-1600
than those indicated in this
table.
Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-1400 300-4500
(b)Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 1-8 mm (0.04-0.3 in.).
(c)Feeds per
Titanium tooth, f , are generally in the range
alloys of 0.08-0.46 mm/rev
40-150 (0.003-0.018
130-500
(c) Slotting (d) Slitting in./rev).
Note: (a) These speeds are carbides, ceramic, and diamond cutting
for cermets,
TABLE 8.12 Approximate range of
FIGURE 8.58 Cutters for (a)
recommended cutting speeds for milling
straddle milling; (b) form milling;
operations.
(c) slotting; and (d) slitting
operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Milling Machines
Wor
Head k
Overarm table

Column
Arbor
Work table
Column Workpiece
Workpiece Saddle
Saddle
T- T-slots
slots
Knee Knee
Base Base

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.59 (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-

and-knee-type milling machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-
spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Broaching

(a)

(b) (c)

FIGURE 8.60 (a) Typical parts finished by internal broaching. (b) Parts
finished by surface broaching. The heavy lines indicate broached surfaces;
(c) a vertical broaching machine. Source:
(a) and (b) Courtesy of General Broach and Engineering Company, (c)
Courtesy of Ty Miles, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Broaches
Rake or Land
hook angle
Chip gullet Pitch Backoff or
clearance angle
FIGURE (a) Cutting action
Toot 8.61
broach, of showing
a
h
Cut per depth variousfeatures. (b)
tooth
Terminology for a broach.
Workpiece Root radius
(a) (b)

Semifinishing teeth

Front Roughening Finishing

pilot teeth teeth
Pull end Rear pilot

Follower
diameter
Root diameter
FIGURE 8.62 Terminology for a
Shank length Cutting teeth
pull-type internal broach, typically
used for enlarging long holes. Overall length

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Saws and Saw
Teeth
Tooth set
Back edge
Straight tooth
Tooth
spacing Width FIGURE 8.63 (a)
Tooth Terminology for saw teeth.
face Tooth Raker tooth (b) Types of saw teeth,
Gullet
back
Tooth back
depth
staggered to provide
clearance angle
(flank Tooth rake clearance for the saw
) angle (positive)
Wave tooth
blade to prevent binding
(b)
during sawing.
(a)

M2 HSS 64-66 HRC

Electron-beam weld Carbide
insert
FIGURE 8.64 (a) High-speed- Flexible alloy-steel
steel teeth welded on a steel backing

blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed to

blade teeth.
(a) (b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Gear cutter Base circle Pitch circle

Gear
Cutter spindle
Spacer

Gear blank
Manufact
Pitch circle
(a)
Base circle
Pinion-shaped
cutter
Gear blank

(b)
Gear
teeth ure
Top view

Gear blank

Hob FIGURE 8.65 (a) Schematic

illustration of gear generating
with a pinion-shaped gear
Rack-shaped cutter cutter. (b) Schematic
Hob
illustration of gear generating in
a gear shaper, using a pinion-
Gear
shaped cutter; note that
Gear blank
blank the cutter reciprocates
vertically. (c) Gear generating
(c) (d) with a rack-shaped cutter. (d)
Three views of gear cutting
with a hob. Source: After E.P.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering DeGarmo.
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Machining Centers
Tool storage Tool-interchange arm
FIGURE 8.66 A horizontal-spindle
Traveling column
Tools (cutters) machining center, equipped with an
Spindle
automatic tool changer. Tool magazines in
Spindle carrier
such machines can store as many as 200
Computer
numerical-
cutting tools, each with its own holder.
control panel Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Machine.
Index table
Pallets

Bed

1st Turret head

2nd Turret head

1st Spindle head

2nd Spindle head

FIGURE 8.67 Schematic
illustration of a computer 3rd Turret head

numerical-controlled turning center.

Note that the machine has two
spindle heads and three turret
heads, making the machine tool
very fexible in its capabilities.
Source: Courtesy of Hitachi Seiki Co.,
Manufacturing
Ltd. Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Reconfigurable Machines
Rotational
Magazine unit motion

Arm unit

Functional unit
Rotational motion

Linear motion
Linear motion

Bed unit Base unit Arm unit

FIGURE 8.68 Schematic illustration of a reconfigurable modular

machining center, capable of accommodating workpieces of different
shapes and sizes, and requiring different machining operations on their
various surfaces. Source: After Y. Koren.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Reconfigurable Machining
Center

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.69 Schematic of components

illustration of assembly different of a
reconfigurable machining center. Source:
After Y. Koren.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Machining of Bearing Races
Tube

Form tool

1. Finish turning of 2. Boring and grooving 3. Internal grooving

outside diameter on outside diameter with a radius-form tool

Form
tool Bearing
race

4. Finish boring of internal 5. Internal grooving 6. Cutting off finished

groove and rough boring with form tool part; inclined bar
of internal diameter and chamfering picks up bearing race

FIGURE 8.70 Sequences involved in machining outer bearing races on

a turning center.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Hexapod

Hexapod
legs

Spindle

Cutting tool

Workpiece

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.71 (a) A hexapod machine tool, showing its major components. (b)
Closeup view of the cutting tool and its head in a hexapod machining center. Source:
National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Chatter &
1.2
0.8
Vibration 1.2
0.8
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0

10-1 V

10-1 V
-0.4 20.
-0.8 4
-1.2 20.
Cast iron 8 Epoxy/graphite
-1.6
FIGURE Chatter marks 21.
-2.0 22.0
8.72
of (right of 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
21.
center photograph) 10-5 s
6
10-5 s

surface on the a (a) (b)

of turned part.
FIGURE Relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b)
Courtes Source: of
8.73
composite epoxy-granite
material. The vertical scale is and
y GeneralElectric
the amplitude of vibration horizontal the
Compan
scale is time.
y.
Increasing damping

FIGURE 8.74 Damping of

function of vibrations as a number
lathe. Joints
the dissipate energy; thus, the
of components
Bed Bed + Bed + Bed + Complete
greater the number
on a of joints, the higher
only carriage headstock carriage + machine the damping. Source: After J. Peters.
headstock

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Total cost
Machining
Economics
Cost per piece

Machining cost

Tool-change cost

Nonproductive cost

Tool cost

Cutting speed

(a)

High-efficiency machining range

Total time
Time per piece

Machining time
FIGURE 8.75 Qualitative plots showing (a)
cost per piece, and (b) time per piece in
Tool-changing time machining. Note that there is an optimum
Nonproductive time cutting speed for both cost and time,
respectively. The range between the two
Cutting speed optimum speeds is known as the high-efficiency
(b) machining range.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7
 Case Study: Ping Golf Putters

FIGURE 8.76 (a) The Ping Anser golf putter; (b) CAD model of rough machining of the putter outer
surface; (c) rough machining on a vertical machining center; (d) machining of the lettering in a vertical
machining center; the operation was paused to take the photo, as normally the cutting zone is fooded
with a coolant; Source: Courtesy of Ping Golf, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson
Education ISBN No.
0-13-227271-7