MEASUREMENT

&
METROLOGY
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO METROLOGY
Meaning
Necessity and objective of Metrology

Standards of Measurement

Elements of Measuring System

Methods of Measurement

Precision and Accuracy

Sources of Errors

Selection and Care of Instruments

Standardizing Organizations
 MEANING / DEFINITION
The word metrology is derived from the two
Greek words
Metrosmeans Measurement
Logy means Science
From the above,
Metrology is defined as the science of
measurement.
According to the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures (IBWM),
The science of measurement embracing both
experiment and theoretical determination at any
level of uncertainty in any field of science and
technology.
 MEANING / DEFINITION
Thus, measurement is the process or the result of
determining the magnitude of a quantity, such as
length or mass, relative to a unit of
measurement, such as a meter or a kilogram.
CLASSIFICATION OF METROLOGY
 NEED OF METROLOGY
To ensure that the part, material or component
conforms to the established standard.
To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.

To maintain customer relationship by ensuring

that no faulty product reaches the customer.

To produce acceptable parts and reduce scrape.

To take decisions on the defective parts.

 OBJECTIVE OF METROLOGY
Complete evolution of newly developed products.
Determination of process capabilities and ensure
that these are better than the relevant
components tolerances.
Determination of the measuring instrument
capabilities.
Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and

efficient use of available facilities.

To standardize the measuring methods.

To maintain the accuracies of measurement.

 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Standard is used to represent universally
accepted specifications for devices.
Standards of measurement evolved so that
communities would have certain common
benchmarks.
The standard systems for linear measurement
are line standard, end standard and wavelength
standard.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Evolution & History Material Standard
Need for establishing standard of length rise to determine
agricultural land areas and erection of buildings and
monuments.
Earliest standard of length was Cubit.
One Cubit = length of forearm = from elbow to the tip of the
middle figure.
In 1855, Imperial Standard Yard was the first length
standard made in England.
In 1872, International Prototype meter made in France.
These two standards of length was made from material
(metal alloy) and hence called as material standards.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Evolution & History
Material Standard -
Imperial Standard Yard
Made of 1 sq. in. cross
bronze bar (82% copper,
13 % tin, 1% zinc) 38 in.
long.
It had two in dia. X
in. deep hole, each fitted
with 1/10 in dia. gold
plug.
The temp. of the bar is
constant at 62OF.
The bar is supported on
rollers in a specified
manner to prevent
flexure.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Evolution & History Material Standard -
International Standard Prototype
Made of platinum irredium alloy (90% Platinum and 10
irredium) 598 mm long.
The upper surface was highly polished.
The bar was operated at 0OC and under normal atmospheric
pressure.
It was supported by rollers to avoid deflection.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Evolution & History Material Standard - Limitations
Influenced by effects of variation of temperature, pressure,
humidity etc.
Stored under security to prevent damage or distraction.
Replica was not available easily.
Not easily reproducible.
Considerable difficulty was experienced while comparing
and verifying the sizes of gauges.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Evolution & History Wavelength Standard
Wavelength of monochromatic light is used to measure the
length.
Cadmium 114, krypton 86 and Mercury 198 were possible
sources of radiation of wavelength suitable as natural
standard as length.
Kr 86 is most suitable if used in a hot - cathode discharge
lamp maintained at 68OK.
According to this 1 meter is equal to 1650763.73 x
wavelength of radiation.
According to this 1 yard=0.9144 x 1650763.73wavelengths
=1509458.3 wavelengths
Wavelength of Kr 86 is 605.78 nanometers.
Limited used due to costly equipment and operation cost.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Sub-divisions of Standard
Imperial Standard Yard, Meter and Wavelength Standards
can not be used for ordinary purpose.
Depending upon the impotence of standard, standards are
sub-divided into four grades:
Primary Standard
Secondary Standard
Tertiary Standard
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Sub-divisions of Standard
Primary Standard
Standard unit of length change its value and it is strictly followed
and precisely defined.
This has no direct application to a measuring problem
encountered in engineering.
They are used after 10-20 years solely for comparisons.
Yard or Meter
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Sub-divisions of Standard
Secondary Standard
Similar to primary standard.
Any error in the instruments is defended measuring with primary
standard.
Use against the loss or destruction of primary standard.
These standards are kept at number of places for safe custody.
Used for comparison with tertiary standards whenever required.
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Sub-divisions of Standard
Tertiary Standard
Similar to primary and secondary standard.
Used at laboratories and workshops for referance purpose
Use for compare with working standard.
cm
 Working standards:
Used more frequently at laboratories and workshops.
Made of low grade materials compared to others
They are derived from fundamental standards
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
The two standards of the linear measurement are
classified as
Line Measurement
Length is expressed as the distance between scribed lines on a bar
of metal under certain conditions of temperature and support.
Both yard and meter are line standards
Example Engineers steel rule

End Measurement
Length is expressed as the distance between the two flat faces
parallel to each other.
Example Vernier Calliper,slip gauges, end bars etc
 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT
Difference between Line and End Standard
Line Standard
Length is expressed as the distance between
scribed lines
Measurement is quick and easy.
Scale marking are not subjected to wear
Limited to 0.2 mm for high accuracy.
Simple to manufacture at low cost.
They are subjected to parallax error.
Example Yard, meter scale
End Standard
Length is expressed as the distance between
two flat parallel faces.
Use of the standard requires skill and time
consuming
These are subjected to wear on their measuring
surfaces.
High accuracy for measurement close to
0.001 mm.
Manufacturing process is complex and the cost
is high.
They are not subjected to parallax error.
Example Vernier calliper, micrometer
 PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT
The sequence of operations necessary for the
execution of measurement is called process of
measurement.

There are three important elements of process of

measurement
Measurand
Reference
Comparator
 Measurand:It is the physical quantity or property
like length,angle,diameter ,thickness etc to be
measured.
Referance: It is the physical quantity or property

to which quantitative comparisons are made.

Comparators: It is the means of comparing
measurand with reference
Example: Fitter measures the lengh of m.s.flat
length of m.s.plate is measurand
Steelrule is referance and
Eye can be considered as comparators
 MEASURING SYSTEM
A measuring system is made of the five basic
element:
Standard
Work piece
Instrument
Person
Environment
 MEASURING SYSTEM
Standard
A standard is defined as something that is setup and
established by authority as a rule for the measurement of
quantity, weight, value or quality etc.
Work piece
The job of which the dimensions or parameters are to be
measured.
Instrument
Device used to measure a work piece parameter.
Operator
Person who is measuring the work piece parameter.
Environment
Standard working surroundings.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct method of measurement
2. Indirect method of measurement
3. Comparative method
4. Transposition method
5. Coincidence method
6. Deflection method
7. Complementary method
8. Method of measurement by substitution
9. Contact method
10. Contactless method
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Direct Method of Measurement
The value of quantity to be measured is obtained
directly without any calculations.
Example Measurement by using scales

Indirect Method of Measurement

The value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
measuring other quantities which are functionally
related to the required value.
Example Angle measurement by using sine bar
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Comparative Method
The value of quantity to be measured is compared with
known value of the same quantity or other quantity
practically related to it.
Example Angle measurement by minute and second

Transposition Method
The value of quantity to be measured is first balanced by
initial known value of the same quantity, then the value of
the quantity measured is put in place of known value and is
again balanced by another known value.
Example Mass measurement by balance and weights
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Coincidence Method
A very small difference between the value of the quantity to
be measured and the reference is determined by the
observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals.
Example Measurement by vernier calliper and micrometer

Deflection Method
The value of quantity to be measured is directly indicated
by the pointer on a calibrated scale.
Example Air pressure measurement in tyres
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Complementary Method
The value of the quantity to be measured is combined
with the known value of the same quantity.
Example Measurement of solid volume by liquid
displacement

Method of Measurement by Substitution

The value of quantity to be measured is replaced by
the same quantity .
Example Different quantity for same type of
measurement
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Contact Method
The sensor or measuring tip of the instrument
actually touches the surface to be measured.
Example Measurement by using scale, vernier calliper,
thermometer etc.

Contactless Method
There is no contact between the sensor or measuring
tip of the instrument.
Example Temperature measurement, length
measurement by using laser operated devices
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
A measuring system is based on few fundamental
units i.e. length, mass, time, temperature.
Following are systems of measurement:
F.P.S. System
Metric System
S.I. System
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
F.P.S. System
F.P.S. system stands for Foot Pound Second System.
In this, unit of length is foot, unit of mass, weight or force is
pound and the unit of temperature is Degree Fahrenheit.
Metric System
Metric system is a decimal system of weight and measure.
In this, unit of length is meter, unit of mass is kilogram,
unit of weight or force is kilogram force (kgf) and the unit of
temperature is Degree Centigrade (OC).
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
S.I. System
S.I. system stands for System International System.
It covers seven basic units and provides only one base unit
for each physical quantity.
The seven basic units are as follows:

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Time Second s
Mass Kilogram Kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Quantity of Substance Mole mol
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
S.I. System
Apart from basic units, there are fifteen derived units.
Derived units are also called as compound unit.
Derived units combination of two or more units.
SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Precision
Precision is how close the measured values are to
each other.

Accuracy
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the
actual (true) value.
Accuracy describes the closeness to the target center.
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Sensitivity: It is defined as the rate of
displacement of the indicating device of an
instument,with respect to the measured quantity

It is the ratio of the scale spacing to the scale

division value .
o Example: If on dial indicator ,the scale spacing is
1.0 mm and the scale division value is 0.01
mm,then sensitivity is 100.
o It is also called as amplification factor or Gearing
ratio.
Readability: It refers to the ease with
which the readings of a measuring instruments
can be read.
Fine and widely spaced graduation lines
ordinarily improves the readability
Calibration: It is a Premeasurement
process ,generally carried out by manufacturers.
It is Carried out by making adjustments such
that the read out device produces zero output for
the zero input.
Repeatabiliy:It is the ability of the
measuring instrument to repat the same results
for the measurements for the same quantity, when
the measurements are carried out
-by the same observer,
-with the same instrument,
-Under the same conditions,
-without any chang in location,
-without change in the method of measurement
-and the measurements are carried out in short
intervals of time
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Error
Error is the difference between the true value of the
parameter and the value found by measurement.
Errors pertains to measurement not to an
instrument.

Error = True Size Actual Size

True Size: It is the theoretical size obtained through

measurement. This type of size is free from any type
of error.
Actual Size: It is a measured size with permissible
error.
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Error may occur in measurement due to following
reasons:
Defectin instrument
Manual adjustment of an instrument
Manufacturing error in instrument
Environmental effect
Human errors
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Types of error:
Systematic errors
Random errors
Environmental Error
Alignment Error
Support Error
Dirt Error
Parallax Error
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Systematic Errors
Systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a
fixed amount from the true value of measurement.
They are consistent, repeatable errors.
Systematic error results from :
faulty instrument

faulty measuring process and

personal bias

Example,

Suppose the first two millimeters of a ruler are worn

off, and the user is not aware of it. Everything he or
she measures will be too short by two millimeters a
systematic error.
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Random Errors
Random error is not unidirectional.
Some of the measured values are greater than true
value; some are less than true value.
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Support Error
These errors are caused due to improper support or
self weight may undergo deflection or may bend.
These errors can be reduced if the support point is
kept approximately half of the total distance of the
components.

Alignment Error
This error is due to non coincidence of the line of
measurement of the measuring component and the
scale or axis of the measuring instrument.
In this, the measured dimension is always in excess
of the actual dimension.
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Environmental Error
This error happens due to the environmental effects
on the measuring device.
Temperature, light, heat is some of the effects. To
avoid this the instrument must be kept in remote
place and by maintaining the atmospheric conditions
as a whole.
To avoid these errors, all metrology laboratories and
standard rooms are maintained at 20OC.

Dirt Error
This error is due to the presence of dirt partials in
the instrument or in the environment..
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Parallax Error
This error occurs due to the faulty reading of the
instrument by the human eye.
Parallax error is the major error in measurement.
Using a proper reflecting device would avoid such an
error.
 SELECTION AND CARE OF
INSTRUMENTS
The important characteristics to be considered in
the selection of the measuring instruments are as
follows:
Measuring range
Accuracy

Ease to handle / operate

Cost
 SELECTION AND CARE OF
INSTRUMENTS
Following care should be taken while handing
measuring instrument:
Keep measuring faces clean and dry during use.
Highly finished surfaces should not be touched by
hands.
Avoid sudden shock (dropping) as it can cause
instrument to malfunction.
Coat measuring faces with rust preventing oil after
use and return to protective case.
Magnetic fields, electronic fields or excessive humid
conditions will cause malfunction and unexpected
errors.
 SELECTION AND CARE OF
INSTRUMENTS
Following care should be taken while handing
measuring instrument:
Batteries should be removed when instrument is not
in use for long periods. This will eliminate battery
corrosion causing instrument to malfunction.
Do not store instruments exposed to direct sunlight,
high temperatures, excessive moisture or volatile
gasses.
Avoid taking measurements with tips / edges of jaws.
This will cause inaccurate readings.