Social Factors and Second

Language Acquisition
 Learners choice of target
language variety
As beebe (1985) observes, learner may be active participants in
choosing the target language they prefer. They do not just learn a
language but rather adopt a variety or varieties of that language.

The choice of reference group depends crucially on the social

context and how this shapes learner attitudes towards the different
varieties with which come into contact.
 Einstein and Verdi (1985) report that 113 adult-working-class ESL
learners of mixed proficiency levels and with different L1 backgrouds
found black American more difficult to understand than either the
regional standard or New Yorkese ( non standard English spoken in
metropolitan New York).

In language setting where the L2 serves an as official language ( for

example, India or Nigeria), the reference group for many learners is
not a native speaker but rather educated users of the L2 in the
lerners own country. This is one of the main reason for the
emergence of local standard.
 In foreign-language settings the preference model is nearly always a
standard variety of the inner circle (i.e countries where English is
learnt as a native language). Wheter the British or American variety is
preferred will largerly reflect areas of geographical influence ( e.g
British in Europe and American in Philipines and Japan ).

Preston (1981) suggest that and approriate model for the L2 learner
is that of competent bilingual rather than a native-speaker model.
Learner
attitude
Developin
Preference g IL
input
model system

Social
Context

Figure 6.1 : The learners preference model and developing

interlanguage system
 The social contexts of L2 learning

Natural vs educational
setting
In natural setting informal occurs. That is learning is considered to result
from direct participation and observation without any articulation of the
underlying principles or rues (see Scribner and Cole 1973).

In contrast, formal learning is held to take place through conscious attion

on rules and principles and greater emphasis is placed on mastery
subject matter treated as the body of knowledge.
 Krashen (1976) distinguishes two ways in which knowledge
of an L2 can be developed; acquisition and learning. The
former takes place subconsciously as a result of
understanding what has been said (or written) in
communication, and clearnly correspond to informal
learning.

The latter, which involves concious attention to linguistic

forms, corresponds to formal learning.
 There is assumption that natural setting lead to
higher levels of L2 proficiency than educational
setting.

Schinke-Llano(1990) claims that second language

acquisition results in native-like use of the target
language, while foreign language acquisition does
not.
 There is some support for this position. DAnglejan (1978) reports
that canadian civil servants freed from their jobs as long as a year to
improve their L2 proficiency in intensive language classes did not
generally become fluent in the L2, despite a strong motivation to
learn. DAnglejan suggest that one reason for this was the absence of
any opportunities for contact with native speaker.

In contrast, Vietnamese immigrants in California who were placed in

occupational settings after a short trainning programme proved highly
succesful.
 The difference within natural and educational settings
regarding both quality and quantity of learning opportunities
are likely to exceed the difference between them.

A more useful approach, is to examine what factors within

each setting are important for successful L2 learning
 Natural Context
Judd (1978), three broad types of context in natural
L2 learning.
1. L2 learning in majority language context
2. L2 learning in official language contexts
3. L2 learning in international contexts
 L2 learning in majority language context
L2 learners in majority language context are typically members of
ethnic minorities : immigrants ( as in the of Vietnamese immigrant in
United States ), migrant workers ( as in the case of Turkish workers in
Germany or Mexican migrants in U.S), or the children of such group.

Some groups of learners develop varieties much closer to the target

language. Taylor (1980) identifies stages in the social mobility of
immigrants group.
 Subtractive bilingualism refers to the situation
where a person learns the second language to the
detriment of the first language, especially if the first
language is a minority language

Additive bilingualism refers to the situation where

a person has acquired the two languages in a
balanced manner
 In additive bilingualism, the native language is secure,
and the second language serves as an enrichment.
Canadian French immersion programs for the English
speaking majority are a prime example of additive
bilingualism since native English speakers maintain their
English and add French.

In subtractive bilingualism, the native language is less robust; society

assumes that it will be used only temporarily until replaced by the
dominant language as the group assimilates.

Most immigrants to the United States, Canada, and

Australia experience subtractive bilingualism; their skills in
their native languages erode over time, and English
becomes their dominant language
L2 learning in official language contexts
Under colonial rule the language of Europe ( predominantly English, French,
Portuguese, Spanish, abd Dutch ) were introduced to substantial number of
African, American, and Asia countries.

The use of these European languages served to centralized power in the

hands of the colonial rulers, who constitue a social and linguistic elite.

Independence led some countries to search for an alternative official

language (e.g, Hindi in India and Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia), but many
countries adopted the colonial power and maintained it in most of its
previous social and official function (e.g : Nigeria chose English and Zaire
chose French)
 Official Language settings are often characterized at the
national level by rapid spread of the L2 and at individual
level by rapid acquistion in at least some sections of the
population.

In official language setting, some social groups may resist

learning the L2 and seek to maintain their native language
as an expression of ethnic vitality.

Official language context can also give rise to new local

standard varieties, for example New Englishes
Singapore-English (Singlish)
English based on creole language which used for informal
communication. It is non standard language and incorporates
elements of other languages. Mixture of English, Mandarin, Tamil,
Malay, and other local dialects like Hokkien, Cantonese or Teochew.

Phatic expression of Lah

Cannot lah / Tidak bisa lah,
Can lah / Bisa lah,
Okay lah / Oke lah, or
Lets sit here for a while lah

Chin chai lah anything also can lah!

[I am not fussy. Anythings fine by me.]
(VJ Times, 2000, p. 10; Talkingcock.com, 2002, p. 30)
 India English
The letter /v/ become /w/
Development = dewlapmen
Positive = posidiw

There is ending expression of na

theres no college tomorrow, right? means theres no college
tomorrow, na?

The word na is identity of English in India

You are lying, isnt it? the correct one is You are lying, arent you?

They sometimes add the word only in sentence

That ball is mine only = That ball is mine.
 L2 learning in international context
English now widely used as international language in term of
communication between the speakers of different languages in wide
range of context; business and trade, academic and scientific, media
and the arts, travel and tourism, and litherature.

The use of an L2 in an international setting is characterized by both

non native-speaker-non native speaker interaction and non-native
speaker native speaker interaction, but as Kachru(1986:16)the
former is more common