EARTHWORKS

Chapter 5 Earth Works

5.1 Unified Soil Classification
Unified soil classification is shown in the following Table.

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5.2 Engineering Parameter of Soils
Design parameters for soils are shown in the next table, which is originally adopted
for Japanese expressway and modified by the JICA TCP.

Engineering Parameter of Soil

Unified
Unit Internal Soil
Cohesion
Soil Type Situation weight friction angle Classifi
(kN/m3)
(kN/m3) (degree) cation for
reference
Gravely soil
or
Compacted 20 40 0 GW, GP
Sand with
some gravel

Well
20 35 0 SW
Compacted

grained
Embankment

Sand
Poor
19 30 0 SP
grained

Equal
Sand with
Compacted 19 25 to/less than SM, SC
some gravels
30

Equal
Fine grained ML, CL
Compacted 18 15 to/less than
Soil MH, CH
50
 Unified
Unit Internal Soil
Cohesion
Soil Type Situation weight friction angle Classifica
(kN/m3)
(kN/m3) (degree) tion for
reference

Dense, or well
20 40 0 GW
grained
Gravels
Not dense, or poor
18 35 0 GP
grained
Sand with Dense 21 40 0 SW
some
Natural Ground

gravels Not dense 19 35 0 SP

Dense, or well
20 35 0
grained
Sand
Loose, or poor
18 30 0
grained
Equal
Sand with Dense 19 30 to/less than
30 SM, SC
some fines
Loose 17 25 0
 Unified
Internal friction Soil
Unit weight Cohesion
Soil Type Situation angle Classificati
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
(degree) on for
reference

Stiff; N-value 8-15

(strong finger push Equal to/less
18 25
make slight than 50
depression

Moderate; N-value
Clay 4-8 (moderate Equal to/less ML,CL
17 20
finger push make than 30
intrusion)
Soft; N-value 2-4
Equal to/less
(finger is easily 16 15
than 15
intrusive
Stiff; N-value 8-15
(strong finger push Equal to/less
17 20
make slight than 50
depression
Moderate; N-value
CH,MH,
Silt 4-8 (moderate Equal to/less
16 15 ML
finger push make than 30
intrusion)
Soft; N-value 2-4
Equal to/less
(finger is easily 14 10
than 15
intrusive
Unified soil classification is shown in section 5.1 of this book.

Well grained: State of wide range in grain size and substantial amount of all
intermediate particle size
Poor grained: Predominate one size or a range of size with some intermediate
size missing.
When adopting this table, the following should be considered.
(a) Unit weight
In case a soil layer is under ground water, 1.0 should be subtracted from the
unit weight on the table inside.

(b) Notation for unit weight adoption

Crushed stone is the same as gravels
Rock muck, boulders and cobbles vary in size and void, unit weight should be
determined by existing data or in situ test to be conducted.
for sand with some gravels/fines or fines with some gravels, it is determined by
the gravels proportion and density.

(c) Internal friction angles and cohesion are approximate value for consolidated
unconfined strength
(Source: design guideline of Japanese express way, and modified by JICA
TCP 2009)
Relation of N-value and Internal Friction Angle of Sand

N-value Density Internal Friction Angle

Degree

0-4 Very loose Smaller than 28.5

4-10 Loose 28.5 -30

10-30 Medium 30 36
30-50 Dense 36 41
More than 50 Very dense Greater than 41

(Source: Terzaghi and Peck)

Relation of N-Value and unconfined compressive strength by Terzaghi and Peck is
shown in the table below. For short-term loading, cohesion is adopted as 1/2 of the
unconfined compressive strength.

Relation of N-value and Unconfined Compressive Strength

Consistency Unconfined Compressive

N-value Strength
kN/m2
0-2 Very soft Smaller than 25
2-4 Soft 25 -50
4-8 Medium 50 -100
8-15 Stiff 100 200
15-30 Very Stiff 200 400
30 or more Hard 400 or more

(Source; Terzaghi and Peck)

5.3 Bearing Stratum for Spread Foundation
Confirmation of bearing stratum should be conducted as shown in the
Figure below:

1.5H confirmation of
shear strength property

3.0H confirmation of
settlement property
5.4 Construction Requirement for Earth Works

DPWH 2004, Standard Specification, subsection 104.3.3 Compaction, described

the following for earth materials
The Contractor shall compact the material placed in all embankment layers and
material scarified to the designated depth below subgrade in cut sections, until a
uniform density of not less than 95 mass percent of the maximum dry density
determined by AASHTO T 99 Method C, is attained, at a moisture content
determined by Engineer to be suitable for such density. Acceptance of compaction
may be based on adherence to an approved roller pattern developed.
The Contractor shall compact the material placed in all embankment layers
The Engineer shall, during progress of the Work, make density tests of the
compacted material in accordance with AASHTO T 191, T 205, or other approved
field density tests, including the use of properly calibrated nuclear testing
devices. A correction for coarse particles may be made in accordance with
AASHTO T 244. If, by such tests, the engineer determines that the specified
density and moisture conditions have not been attained, the Contractor shall
perform additional work as may be necessary to attain the specified conditions.
At least one group of three in-situ density tests shall be carried out for each 500 m2
of each layer of compacted fill.
The reasons for 95% mass percent of the maximum dry density (compaction
degree) is as required as follows:
The strength of soil after water absorption is higher when dry density is bigger.
The reasons for 95% mass percent of the maximum dry density
(compaction degree) is as required as follows:
The strength of soil after water absorption is higher when dry density is
bigger.

Dry density (g/cm3)

If compaction
degree is small than
95%, settlement is
Optimum big, generally.
moisture
content
Moisture content
for compaction
should also be
Moisture contents for compaction (%) regulated by the
Engineer, because,
Angle (degree)
Internal Friction

the strength is
remarkably decrease
by water absorption
in lower moisture
After water content area.
absorption

Moisture contents for compaction (%)

 Cohesion (kgf/cm2 )
After water
absorption

Moisture contents for compaction (%)

Example of Strength of compacted Soil

5.5 In- Place Density Test (Sand Density Method)

This test is used to determine the in-place density of soils particularly

moist, cohesive, and fine-grained materials. (Source: DPWH, Design
Guideline Criteria P 246)
 5.5.1 Apparatus and Accessories to be used
1. Density apparatus
2. Balances
3. Miscellaneous equipment. A shovel for digging out the cylinders, and a
steel straight edge with one end sharpened, seamless thin cans with
lids, or other suitable containers, as well as miscellaneous tools.

Plate with 203 Density Apparatus

mm diameter
hole Funnel

Seamless Jar with Calibrated

thin can Sand

Balance
 5.5.2 Procedure of Sand Density Method

(1) Repertory Work

Weigh sand and container and confirm unit weight of the sand.

(2) Fieldwork
Prepare surface for hole. At the location to be tested, all loose soil
shall be removed from the area.
Place plate with 203 mm diameter hole (optional)
Excavate hole, All materials taken from the hole is placed in an air-
tight container for subsequent weighing.

Soil Condition Hole dimension

Cohesive soils which contain
little or no gravel
Gravelly soil
200 mm diameter, 305 to 356 mm deep
305 mm diameter at the surface tapering
down to about 152 mm at a depth of 305 to
356 mm
Fill the hole with standard sand from weighed container. The volume
of the hole is determined by carefully filling it with calibrated sand using
the sand pouring device. The weight of sand used to fill the hole is
determined by subtracting the final weight of sand and container (plus
the calculated weight of sand occupying the small space in the
template) from the initial weight. The volume of sand and of the hole is
calculated from the known unit weight of calibrated sand.

Excavation of Hole for Sand After Pouring Sand

Density Method
5.6 Appropriate Cut Slope Gradient

5.6.1 DPWH, Design Guideline, Criteria and Standards (P 645)

Generally, earth cuts will require slopes of at least 1 to 1, and 1- 1/2 to 1 is
better if vegetation is to be established upon them. Rock slopes may vary
from vertical to 1 to 1, depending upon the nature of the rock, direction of
stratification and jointing.

5.6.2 DPWH, FCSEC, Technical Standards and Guidelines for Planning

and Design (Draft) Volume IV: Natural Slope Failure Countermeasures
(P25-29)

Natural ground is extremely complex and not uniform in its properties, and
cut slopes tend to gradually become unstable after the completion of work.
Therefore, stability calculation is are meaningful only in rare cases when
examining the stability of cut slopes. An overall judgment shall be made by
fully taking into account the requirements for its stability described later by
referring to the standard values of the gradient of slope listed in the Table
next.
 The gradients referred to are those for
individual slopes not having berms, as
shown in Figure right.

Gradient of Cut Slope

Cutting Height and Slope Gradient

Note:
Soil/Rock Cutting Height Approximate 1. Indicated gradient (ratio)
Properties H Gradient (Ratio) is subject to change
n:1
depending on the stability of
Hard Rock 7.0 m (max) 0.25:1 0.5:1 soil materials.
2. When the cutting height
Soft Rock 7.0 m (max) 0.5:1 1:1 exceeds 7.0 m for rock
Soil a. 2.0 m or less 2:1 materials and 5.0 m for soil,
cohesive benching is applied.
Over 2.0 m 1.5:1 3. In cases of heavy
b. less 2.0 m or less 2:1 4:1 weathering or erosion, the
cohesive above Table is applicable
Over 2.0 m 1.5 2.1 only after adequate
protection work is applied.
 Cut slope Gradient
5.6.2 Standard Gradient for Road Materials of Ground height (m) (i=Horizontal:
Vertical)
Cut Slopes of Japanese Highway
(Reference) Hard rock Unconditional 0.3:1 0.8:1

Soft rock 0.5:1- 1.2:1

Standard gradient for road cut slopes
of Japanese Highway are shown in
Loose and 1.5:1
table below as a reference. poor grain size
Sand
distribution.

Less than 5 m 0.8:1 1.0:1

Dense
5-10 m 1.0:1- 1.2:1
Sandy soil
Less than 5 m 1.0:1 1.2:1
Loose
5-10 m 1.2:1 1.5:1

Dense or well Less than

0.8:1 1.0:1
grain size 10 m
distribution 10 -15 m 1.0:1 1.2:1
Sandy soil with
gravel or rock Less than 1.0:1 1.2:1
Loose, bad
grain size 10 m
distribution. 10 -15 m 1.2:1 1.5:1
Fine-grained Less than 0.8:1 1.2:1
Silt, clay 10 m
soil
Fine-grained Less than 5 m 1.0:1 1.2:1
Standards Gradients for soil with some
cobbles, 5 -10 m 1.2:1 1.5:1
Road Cut Slopes boulders
Notes:
When a single gradient cutting can not be adopted due to different soil composition
or other reasons, the cut slope height and gradient are determined on the basis of
the following considerations.
ha: Cut slope height for slope a
ha a
hb: Cut slope height for slope surface b
hb
b The gradient does not include a berm.
The cut slope height to the relevant slope
gradient means the total cut slope height
including all cut slopes above the relevant cut
slope.
(Modified by Highway Earthwork Guideline,
Japan Road Association, March 1999)

It is important that an overall judgment of critical slope gradient be based

on observation of similar type slopes.
As shown in the following Figure, the gradient of slopes varies
depending on the geology. Berm is generally installed at boundary of
slope gradient difference. On the cut slopes, berms 1.0 to 2.0 m
:1.2 wide are generally provided for every
1.21:1
5.0 to 7.0 m in height for the following
purposes:
:1
1.2 1:1.2 Fine grained soil To reduce speed of the surface water
flow on the cut slopes, thereby
decreasing scouring force on the cut
.0 1
:
1.0

Soft rock
1

slopes;
1:

To provide a place for the installation

Hard rock
1

Hard rock
Road of drainage ditches; and
0.5:

To be used as sidewalk for inspection

Geology and Slope Gradient or as scaffolding for repair works.

A wider berm is recommended where the slope is long and large or where
rock fall protection fences are to be installed.
When drainage structure are not provided, about 5 to 10% of transversal
gradient is normally provided for the berm to drain water towards the toe of
the slope.
When the soil is easily eroded, the gradient of the berm shall be made
toward the ditch of the berm (mountainside).
5.7 Appropriate Embankment Slope Gradient

5.7.1 DPWH Design Guideline, Criteria and Standards (P 645)

Embankment slopes will depend upon the embankment materials. All earth
slopes shall be 1- 1/2 to 1 or flatter. Slopes composed of large fragments of
coarse, hard rock may stand as steep as 1 to 1. Slopes steeper than 1 to 1
shall be of hand-placed materials.

5.7.2 Standard Gradients for Road Embankments Slopes in Japan

(Reference)
The following table shows standard gradient for road embankment slopes in
Japan as a reference this is determined experimentally.
Standard Gradients for Road Embankment Slopes in Japan (Reference)

Embankment slope Gradient

Materials of Embankment height (m) (i=Horizontal:
Vertical)

Sand of well grain size Lower than 5m 1.5:1 - 1.8:1

distribution
5 -15 m 1.8:1 - 1.20:1

Sand of poor grain size Lower than 10m 1.8:1 - 2.0:1

distribution

Lower than 10m 0.8:1 - 1.0:1

Rock lump, rock muck
10 -20 m 1.8:1 - 2.0:1

Lower than 5 m 0.8:1 -1.0:1

Sandy soil, stiff fine-grained soil
5 - 10 m 1.0:1 -1.2:1
Lower than 5 m 1.8:1 - 2.0:1
Volcanic clay

Note: Embankment height is defined as from slope toe to slope shoulder.

 Slope shoulder

Embankmen
t Height

Slope
toe

It is required that there is enough bearing capacity

of embankment base, and no expected inundation.

5.8 Cross Fall

On the design of embankment and subgrade, the cross fall shall be
designed considering the draining of surface water during construction
period, as shown next:

In case of wide Road In case of narrow Road

5.9 Surface Water Treatment

On the construction of embankment, surface water treatment shall be

considered to avoid the softening/saturation of embankment:

Water pond

Penetration of Water
Road
Bed
become
soft Temporary Drainage

Water Drain Pipe

 End of Presentation
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