Cellular Telephone,

Satellite and
WiMAX
Networks
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 Cellular Telephony

Frequency Reuse Principle

Transmitting
Receiving
Handoff
Roaming
First Generation
Second Generation
Third Generation
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Cellular system

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Cellular Telephony
Cellular telephony is designed to provide
communications between two moving
units, called mobile stations (MSs), or
between one mobile unit and one
stationary unit, often called a land unit.
A service provider must be able to locate
and track a caller, assign a channel to the
call, and transfer the channel from base
station to base station as the caller moves
out of range.
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Frequencyreusepatterns

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Frequency reuse
Cell size is not fixed and can be
increased or decreased depending on
the population of the area.
The typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12
miles.
The transmission power of each cell
is kept low to prevent the
interference of adjacent cell signals.

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Multiple Access in Cellular
Networks
Multiple Transmitters, One
Receiver
In many wireless systems, multiple
transmitters attempt to communicate with
the same receiver.

For example, in cellular systems. Cell phones

users in a local area typically communicate
with the same cell tower.

How is the limited spectrum shared between

these local transmitters?
Multiple Access Method
In such cases, system adopts a multiple
access policy.

Three widely-used policies:

Frequency Division Multiple Access

(FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
FDMA
In FDMA, we assume that a base station can
receive radio signals in a given band of
spectrum, i.e., a range of continuous
frequency values.
The band of frequency is broken up into
smaller bands, i.e., subbands.
Each transmitter (user) transmits to the base
station using radio waves in its own subband.
Cell Phone User 1
Cell Phone User 2
Frequency :
Subbands :
Cell Phone User N

Time
FDMA (Contd)
A subband is also a range of continuous
frequencies, e.g., 824 MHz to 824.1 MHz. The
width of this subband is 0.1 MHz = 100 KHz.

When a users is assigned a subband, it

transmits to the base station using a sine
wave with the center frequency in that
band, e.g., 824.05 MHz.
FDMA (Contd)
When the base station is tuned to the
frequency of a desired user, it receives no
portion of the signal transmitted by another
in-cell user (using a different frequency).

This way, the multiple local transmitters

within a cell do not interfere with each other.
TDMA
In pure TDMA, base station does not split up
its allotted frequency band into smaller
frequency subbands.

Rather it communicates with the users one-

at-a-time, i.e., round robin access.
User 2

User 3
User 1

User N
Frequency
Bands

Time
TDMA (Contd)
Time is broken up into time slots, i.e., small,
equal-length intervals.
Assume there are some n users in the cell.
Base station groups n consecutive slots into a
frame.
Each user is assigned one slot per frame. This
slot assignment stays fixed as long as the
user communicates with the base station
(e.g., length of the phone conversation).
TDMA (Contd)

Example of TDMA time slots for n = 10.

User User
1 2
User User
10 1
User User
10 1

Slot Time
Frame

In each time slot, the assigned user transmits

a radio wave using a sine wave at the center
frequency of the frequency band assigned to
the base station.
Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing(OFDM)
It is a special kind of FDM
The spacing between carriers are
such that they are orthogonal to
one another
Therefore no need of guard band
between carriers.
One example makes the thing clear
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OFDM-FDMA (OFDMA)
Each terminal
occupies a subset of
sub-carriers
Subset is called an
OFDMA traffic channel user4
Each traffic channel is user3
assigned exclusively
user2
to one user at any
time user1
OFDM-FDMA (System View)
Advantages of OFDMA
Multi-user Diversity
broadband signals experience
frequency selective fading
OFDMA allows different users to
transmit over different portions of the
broadband spectrum (traffic channel)
Different users perceive different
channel qualities, a deep faded
channel for one user may still be
favorable to others
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Advantages of OFDMA cont..

Multi-user
Diversity
Advantages of OFDMA cont..
Efficient use of Spectrum

4/3 Hz per symbol

6/5 Hz per symbol

Advantages of OFDMA cont..
Receiver Simplicity
It eliminates the intra-cell interference
avoiding CDMA type of multi-user
detection
Orthogonality of code destroyed by
selective fading
Only FFT processor is required
Bit Error Rate performance is better only in Fading
environment
Disadvantages of OFDMA

2
Peak to average x(t )
power ratio (PAPR) PAPR
P avg

The large amplitude variation increases in-band noise and increases

the BER when the signal has to go through amplifier nonlinearities.
Disadvantages of OFDMA
cont..
Synchronization
Tight Synchronization between users are

required for FFT in receiver

Pilot signals are used for synchronizations

Co-channel interference
Dealing with this is more complex in OFDM than in
CDMA
Dynamic channel allocation with advanced
coordination among adjacent base stations

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Second-generation cellular phone systems

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 Note:

D-AMPS, or IS-136, is a digital

cellular phone system using TDMA
and FDMA.

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D-AMPS

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D-AMPS
Mainly designed for digitized voice.
Backward-compatible with AMPS.
Use the same bands and channels as AMPS.
Each voice channel is digitized using a very
complex PCM and compression technique.
The system sends 25 frames per second, with 1944
bits per frame. Each frame lasts 40 ms (1/25) and
is divided into six slots shared by three digital
channels.
Each slot holds 324 bits. However, only 159 bits
comes from the digitized voice; 64 bits for control,
and 101 bits for error correction.
The resulting 48.6 Kbps of digital data modulates a
carrier using QPSK; the result is a 30-KHz signal.
30-KHz signals are frequency-multiplexed in the 25-
MHz band.
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Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM)
European standard that was developed to provide a
common second-generation technology for all of
Europe.
Uses two bands for duplex communication. Each
band is 25 MHz in width, shifted toward 900 MHz.
Each band is divided into 124 channels of 200 KHz
separated by guard bands.
Each 270.8-Kbps digital channel modulates a carrier
using GMSK (a form of FSK used mainly in European
systems).
Finally 124 analog channels of 200 KHz are
multiplexed together using FDMA.
Because of the complex error correction mechanism,
GSM allows a reuse factor as low as 3. 29
 Note:

GSM is a digital cellular phone system

using TDMA and FDMA.

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GSM bands

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GSM

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Multiframe components

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 Note:

IS-95 is a digital cellular phone system

using CDMA/DSSS and FDMA.

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Interim Standard 95 (IS-95)
One of the dominating standards in North America.
Uses two bands for duplex communication.
The bands can be the traditional ISM 800-MHz band
or ISM 1900-MHz band.
Each band is divided into 20 channels of 1.228 MHz
separated by guard bands.
Each IS-95 channel is equivalent to 41 AMPS
channels (41 x 30 KHz = 1.23 MHz)
The frequency reuse factor is normally 1 because
the interference from neighboring cells cannot
affect CDMA or DSSS transmission.
Soft handoff used.

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IS-95 forward
transmission
In the forward direction (base to mobile),
communications between the base and all
mobiles are synchronized.
The scrambling signal is produced from a long
code generator that uses the electronic serial
number (ESN) of the mobile station and
generates 242 pseudorandom chips, each having
42 bits.
The decimator chooses 1 bit out of 64 bits.
The result of the scrambler is fed to the CDMA
multiplexer. For each traffic channel, one Walsh
64 x 64 row chip is selected.
The CDMA-multiplexed signal is fed into QPSK
modulator to produce a signal of 1.288 MHz.

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IS-95 forward
transmission
An analog channel creates 64 digital
channels, of which 55 channels are traffic
channels. Nine channels are used for control
and synchronization.
Channel 0 is a pilot channel.
Channel 32 gives information about the
system to the mobile station.
Channel 1 to 7 are used for paging, to send
messages to one or more mobile stations.
Channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63 are traffic
channels carrying digitized voice from the
BS to the corresponding mobile station.
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IS-95 forward transmission

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IS-95 reverse transmission

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IS-95 reverse
transmission
The reverse channels use DSSS.
The output of the 6/64 symbol
modulator is a signal of 307.2 Kcps.
Each chip is spread into 4.
After spreading, each signal is
modulated using QPSK.
Normally 92 channels are used; 62
are traffic and 32 are channels used
to gain access to the base station.
 Note:

The main goal of third-generation

cellular telephony is to provide
universal personal communication.

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Evolution of Radio Access
Technologies
802.16m

802.16d/e

LTE (3.9G) :
3GPP release 8~9
LTE-Advanced :
3GPP release 10+

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LTE Basic Concepts
LTE employs Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for
downlink data transmission and
Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) for
uplink transmission

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LTE Key Features
Highspectralefficiency
OFDM inDownlink
SingleCarrierFDMAinUplink
Verylowlatency
Shortsetuptime&Shorttransferdelay
Shorthand
overlatencyandinterruptiontime
Supportofvariablebandwidth
1.4,3,5,10,15and20MHz

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LTE Key Features
Compatibilityandinterworkingwithe
arlier3GPPReleases
FDDandTDDwithinasingleradioac
cess technology
EfficientMulticast/Broadcast

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Resource Grid

One frame is 10ms

10 subframes

One subframe is 1ms

2 slots
One slot is 0.5ms
N resource blocks
[ 6 < N < 110]
One resource block is
0.5ms and contains 12
subcarriers from each
OFDM symbol 46
LTE spectrum (bandwidth
and duplex) flexibility

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Satellite Networks

Basics of Satellites
Types of Satellites
Capacity Allocation

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Basics: How do Satellites Work

Two Stations on Earth want to communicate

through radio broadcast but are too far away to
use conventional means.
The two stations can use a satellite as a relay
station for their communication
One Earth Station sends a transmission to the
satellite. This is called a Uplink.
The satellite Transponder converts the signal
and sends it down to the second earth station.
This is called a Downlink.
Basics: Advantages of
Satellites
The advantages of satellite
communication over terrestrial
communication are:
The coverage area of a satellite greatly
exceeds that of a terrestrial system.
Transmission cost of a satellite is
independent of the distance from the
center of the coverage area.
Satellite to Satellite communication is
very precise.
Higher Bandwidths are available for use.
Basics: Disadvantages of
Satellites
The disadvantages of satellite
communication:
Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
Satellite bandwidth is gradually
becoming used up.
There is a larger propagation delay in
satellite communication than in
terrestrial communication.
Basics: Factors in satellite
communication
Elevation Angle: The angle of the horizontal of
the earth surface to the center line of the satellite
transmission beam.
This effects the satellites coverage area. Ideally, you
want a elevation angle of 0 degrees, so the transmission
beam reaches the horizon visible to the satellite in all
directions.
However, because of environmental factors like objects
blocking the transmission, atmospheric attenuation, and
the earth electrical background noise, there is a
minimum elevation angle of earth stations.
Basics: Factors in satellite
communication (cont.)
Other impairments to satellite communication:
The distance between an earth station and a satellite
(free space loss).
Satellite Footprint: The satellite transmissions strength
is strongest in the center of the transmission, and
decreases farther from the center as free space loss
increases.
Atmospheric Attenuation caused by air and water can
impair the transmission. It is particularly bad during rain
and fog.
Basics: How Satellites are
used
Service Types
Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
Example: Point to Point Communication
Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
Example: Satellite Television/Radio
Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).

Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)

Example: Satellite Phones
Types of Satellites
Satellite Orbits
GEO
LEO
MEO
Molniya Orbit
HAPs
Frequency Bands
Geostationary Earth Orbit
(GEO)
These satellites are in orbit 35,863
km above the earths surface along
the equator.
Objects in Geostationary orbit
revolve around the earth at the same
speed as the earth rotates. This
means GEO satellites remain in the
same position relative to the surface
of earth.
GEO (cont.)
Advantages
A GEO satellites distance from earth
gives it a large coverage area, almost a
fourth of the earths surface.
GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a
particular area.
These factors make it ideal for satellite
broadcast and other multipoint
applications.
GEO (cont.)
Disadvantages
A GEO satellites distance also cause it
to have both a comparatively weak
signal and a time delay in the signal,
which is bad for point to point
communication.
GEO satellites, centered above the
equator, have difficulty broadcasting
signals to near polar regions
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
LEO satellites are much closer to the
earth than GEO satellites, ranging
from 500 to 1,500 km above the
surface.
LEO satellites dont stay in fixed
position relative to the surface, and
are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes
each pass.
A network of LEO satellites is
necessary for LEO satellites to be
LEO (cont.)
Advantages
A LEO satellites proximity to earth
compared to a GEO satellite gives it a
better signal strength and less of a time
delay, which makes it better for point to
point communication.
A LEO satellites smaller area of
coverage is less of a waste of
bandwidth.
LEO (cont.)
Disadvantages
A network of LEO satellites is needed,
which can be costly
LEO satellites have to compensate for
Doppler shifts cause by their relative
movement.
Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites,
causing gradual orbital deterioration.
LEOsatellitesystem

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Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between
8,000 km and 18,000 km above the earths
surface.
MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in
functionality.
MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods
of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to
8 hours.
MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than
LEO satellites.
MEO (cont.)
Advantage
A MEO satellites longer duration of
visibility and wider footprint means
fewer satellites are needed in a MEO
network than a LEO network.
Disadvantage
A MEO satellites distance gives it a
longer time delay and weaker signal
than a LEO satellite, though not as bad
as a GEO satellite.
Frequency Bands
Different kinds of satellites use different
frequency bands.
LBand: 1 to 2 GHz, used by MSS
S-Band: 2 to 4 GHz, used by MSS, NASA, deep space research
C-Band: 4 to 8 GHz, used by FSS
X-Band: 8 to 12.5 GHz, used by FSS and in terrestrial imaging,
ex: military and meteorological satellites
Ku-Band: 12.5 to 18 GHz: used by FSS and BSS (DBS)
K-Band: 18 to 26.5 GHz: used by FSS and BSS
Ka-Band: 26.5 to 40 GHz: used by FSS
What is WiMAX
WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for
microwave access)
A technology based on an evolving standard
for point-to-multipoint wireless networking
The commercialization of IEEE 802.16 standard
Solution for Wireless Metropolitan Area
Network
BWA (Broadband Wireless Access) Solution
Comply with European BWA standard
European Telecommunications Standards Institute's
High-performance radio metropolitan area network
(HiperMAN) standard
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WIMAX Overview
WiMAX is all about delivering broadband wireless
access to the masses. It represents an
inexpensive alternative to digital subscriber lines
(DSL) and cable broadband access.
WiMAX could bring broadband access into the
homes and businesses of millions of people in
rural and developing markets.
An 802.16e amendment will add mobility to
802.16. As early as 2006, 802.16 could be
incorporated into end-user devices like notebooks
and PDAs, enabling the delivery of wireless
broadband directly to the end-user on the move.

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OFDM
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM) is a method of digital modulation
in which a signal is split into several
narrowband channels at different
frequencies.
Using a large number of parallel narrow-
band subcarriers instead of a single wide-
band carrier to transport information
Very easy and efficient in dealing with
multi-path
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 OFDM
Rb/192
OFDM
f1 OFDM (70 MHz IF) Signal

Data from MAC f2

S/P

+

Rb Mpbs
f192

Divides data stream into 192 parallel bit streams

Each bit stream is carried by a separate
subcarrier
All subcarriers transmit in unison and
simultaneously
A 70 Mbps stream over the air means that each

subcarrier takes 364.59 Kbps of data at the 69