OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the general functions of the

nervous system in maintaining
homeostasis
2. Describe the structural and functional
divisions of the nervous system
3. Describe the regions of the central
nervous system
4. Contrast the histological characteristics
and functions of neuroglia and
neurons
5. Define a synapse
6. Explain the organization of neurons in
the nervous system
6. Describe the functional classes of
neurons
7. Describe the divisions of the nervous
system
8. Describe the functional divisions of the
central nervous system
9. Describe how neurons communicate
to each other
10.Describe the structural and functional
features of the spinal cord
11.Describe the main components of the
brain and its functions
12. Describe the protection coverings of the
nervous system
13. Describe the formation and circulation of
the cerebrospinal fluid
14. Describe the functions of the major
components of the brain
15. Describe the functional areas of the
cerebral cortex
16. Describe the cerebrovascular system
17. Describe the main components of the
limbic system and its general functions
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
A SERIES OF NERVOUS ORGANS WITH A SINGLE
FUNCTION: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
(in electrochemical language:
fast travelling nerve impulses + releasing
neurotransmitter)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
CONSISTS OF
1. CENTRAL NS (CNS):
BRAIN + SPINAL CORD
2. PERIPHERAL NS (PNS):
CRANIAL NERVES (12 prs)
SPINAL NERVES (31 prs)
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Characterized by:
Complicated strutures & functions

COMPLICATED (ASTRONOMICAL)
INTERCONNECTIONS
&
INTERACTIONS
of neurons

(In the brain: - Neurons: 1011

- Synapses: 1015
Divergence

1 Neuron 10,000 neurons

Convergence
 NS FUNCTIONS:
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
1. MONITORS
(info.)
SOMATOSENSORY SOMATORECEPTOR EXTERNAL
CNS SENSORY ENVIRONMENT
VISCEROSENSORY VISCERORECEPTOR INTERNAL
(info.)

2. COORDINATES (interneuron in CNS) APPROPRIATE RESPONSES

(PROCESSES, INTEGRATES)
SOMATOMOTORIC SOMATOEFFECTOR
3. INSTRUCTS *: CNS MOTORIC (Skeletal muscles)
VISCEROMOTORIC VISCEROEFFECTOR
(Organ muscles: smooth m.,
* (1).Conscious (2). Unconscious
cardiac m., vasa, glandular cell)
 1

Three main types and functions of neuron:

1. sensory neuron; 2. interneuron (in CNS); 3. motor neuron
 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE NS

CNS Aff. ENVIRONMENT

(brain & STIMULI (INTERNAL,
spin. cord)
(MESSAGES) EXTERNAL)
INTEGRATION
Muscles
(analyzed
combined Eff. (skeletal,
compared smooth, cardiac,
coordinated) vasa) HOMEOSTASIS

Glands
(endocrine,
exocrine)

HOMEOSTASIS (Lat. homois: same, stasis: standing still)

A state of inner balance and stability in the body, which remain
relatively constant, despite external environmental changes
 FUNCTIONAL
UNITS OF THE NS CNS
(brain & AUTONOMIC
spin.
SOMATIC cord)
Processes sensory input
Processes sensory input A E from visceral organs Afferent
f f (sensory)
from somatic structures Division
f f Aff. Div.
Aff. Div. PNS
Somatic NS (cran. nn. & Visceral NS
spin. nn)
Eff. Div. Eff. Div.
Efferent
Stimulates voluntary muscles
Triggers responses in (motor) Division
involuntary musc., glands (Autonomic NS)

Sympathetic Complement Parasympathtic

NS each other NS

Responds to stress & Conserves & restores

emergency situations body resources
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL NS
(1). BRAIN
(2). SPIN. CORD
(MED. SPIN.)

2. PERIPHERAL NS
(1). 12 CRANIAL NN.
(from the brain)
(2) 31 SPINAL NN.
(from the spin. cord)
a. SOMATIC
b. AUTONOMIC
(a). Sympathetic
(b) . Parasympathetic
 NEURON:
STRUCTURAL & FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NS

NEURON: - specialized in TRANSMIT IMPULSES

from short to relatively long distances (from one
part of the body or CNS to another).
- two important properties:
(1). EXCITABILITY (the ability to respond to stimuli)
(2). CONDUCTIVITY (the ability to conduct a
signal/impulse)

The brain receives million bits of info.from the sensory organs

and integrates them into various responses

(Nervous tissue: neuron + neuroglia)

NEURON
The most important building block of
the brain: nerve cell (neuron).
Neuron transmits info. in the form of
electrical language (impulses).
The neurons are separated by tiny
gaps (synapse clefts).
When an impulse moves through a
neuron, the cell releases
chemicals (neurotransmitters)
into the synapses.
The neurotransmitters induce or
inhibit impuses in connecting
neurons
 NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS)

PERIPHERAL NS CENTRAL NS

AUTONOMIC NS SOMATIC NS BRAIN SPINAL CORD

(ENCEPHALON) (MYELUM/medul-
la spinalis)
SYMPATHETIC NS PARASYMPATHETIC NS

HINDBRAIN
FOREBRAIN MIDBRAIN
RHOMBENCEPHALON
(PROSENCEPHALON) (MESENCEPHALON)

TELENC. DIENC. MESENC. METENC. MYELENC.

Thalamus Hypothalamus Tectum Pons Medulla

Cerebrum (cerebral cortex, Basal gangl. Tegmentum Cerebellum oblongata
Hippocampus Amygdala Medullary body (Medulla)
 Parts of the brain
(embryologically)
1. Prosencephalon
(1). Telencephalon (HC)
(2). Diencephalon (Thalamus,
Hypothalamus)
2. Mesencephalon
3. Rhombencephalon
(1). Metencephalon (Pons,
cerebellum)
(2). Myelencephalon
(Medulla oblongata)
NEURON : Fundamental unit
(structural/functional) of NS
100 billions of cells (stars in the Milkway
Galaxy) in the brain

INFO. COMMUNICATION:
electrochemical in nature (propagation of
action potentials along the membrane of
a neuron and transmission of
neurotransmitters through the synapses)

SYNAPSE (1015): point of contact

between neurons

Milkway
Galaxy
 Synapse Point of contact among
neurons

Transmission of chemical
substances
(neurotransmitters/NTs) from axon
terminal to the next neuron (Ach,
NE, DA, 5-HT etc.)
Types of synapse:
A. 1. Axosomatic;
2. Axodendritic;
3. Axoaxonic;
4. Dendrodendritic
B. 1. Electric;
2. Chemical (NT)
HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE
TO EACH OTHER ?

SYNAPSE
CONSISTS OF:
-Presynaptic
element (part of
axon terminal)
-Synaptic
cleft/space
-Postsynaptic
region (receptor at
the postsynaptic
membrane of the
innervated neuron
or effector
structure)
 An action potential
arrives and initiates After synaptic transmis-
synaptic transmission sion,acetylcholine (Ach)
and vesicles are received

Synaptic
cleft
 TYPES OF SYNAPSES

1. Simple axodendritic or axosomatic

2. Dendritic spine synapse
3. Dendritic crest synapse
4. Simple synapse + axoaxonic
5. Combined axoaxonic and axodendritic
synapse
6. Varicosities (boutons en passant)
7. Dendrodendritic synapse
8. Reciprocal synapse
9. Serial synapse

CONVERGENCE & DIVERGENCE

Types and subtypes of synapses
I.Serial synapses
PRESYNAPTIC
INHIBITION
(-)
I. SENSORY/AFFRENT SYSTEM
(CNS RECEPTOR)
(INFO.)

(CNS) RECEPTOR (events/stimuli)

EXTERNAL CONTACT
(somatosensory) (pain, temp., touch, pressure)
RECEPTORS
DISTANT
* COLLECTING (Info) (sound, light, odours)
* PROCESSING
INTERNAL
(viscerosensory)
RECEPTORS
Tension, blood pressure,
II I pressure, chemical
composition of the blood
(hormones, glucose, CO2,
ions/electrolytes)
II. MOTOR/EFFERENT SYSTEM
( CNS EFFECTOR)
(INFO.)

SOMATOMOTORIC Effector: SKELETAL MUSCLES

MOTOR/
AFFERENT
SYSTEM
II I
VISCEROMOTORIC EFFECTOR: viscera, vasa
smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle,
glandular cell
(exocrine, endocrine)
 Three functional classes of neurons:
1. Afferent/sensory neuron: from receptor
2. Interneuron/association neuron (in the CNS: brain &
spinal cord)
3. Efferent/motor neuron: to effector
 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM

BRAIN (Encephalon)
(within the cranial cavity)
CENTRAL
(CNS)

NERVOUS SPINAL CORD (Medulla spinalis)

(within the vertebral canal)
SYSTEM
CRANIAL NERVES (N I - XII)
(from the brain)
(anatomical)
PERIPHERAL
(PNS) SPINAL NERVES (31 pairs)
(from the spinal cord)
(functional)

AUTONOMIC (ANS)* (unconscious) SOMATIC (conscious)

(to skeletal muscles)
SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
(to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands)
(* ANS has its cranial component in the brain)
12 pairs of cranial
nerves (NI NXII)

31 pairs of spinal nerves

 AUTONOMIC
NS

SYMPATHETIC
NS (blue)
(Centers:
thoracolumbal:
T2-L3)
PARASYMPATHETIC
NS (red)
(Centers: craniosacral:
Pons, med.obl.,S2,3,4)
NEURON
(NERVE CELL)
Fig. 1-2
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF NS*

SOMA (celL body)

(collective: gray matter/ sustantia grisea)
COMPONENT
DENDRITES
PROCESSES
AXON (collective: white matter/
substantia alba)
*NEURON:
Specialized to receive info. TERMINAL SYNAPSE
Transmit electrical impulses (contact with other neuron/
(action potentials) synapse: effector cells)
release of NT(into synaptic cleft)
Influence other effector tissues
(neuron, muscle (skeletal, smooth,
cardiac), glands
 NEURON

1. Soma cell (cell body)

(1). Membrane
(2). Cytoplasm
(3). Nucleus + nucleolus
2. Processes
(1). Dendrites
(2). Axon (one) Branches

Axon terminal (terminal

boutton): contains vesicles
with neurotransmitter (NT)
granules
SYNAPSE: point of contact
between neurons
NT: dopamin (DA), serotonin (5-HT),
epinphrine (E), norepinephrine (NE),
GABA etc.
 Dendrite

Cell body/soma NEURON

Axon

Collateral

Axon
terminal

Direction of info. (orthodromic)

Nissls bodies:
rERs (rough
endoplasmic
reticulum)
(Nissls stain:
green)
 SYNAPSES (interneuronal contacts)
1. Axosomatic 2. Axodendritic
3. Axoaxonic 4. Dendrodendritic

Electrochemical transmission

Neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft

Axon terminal

Presynaptic Postsynaptic
neuron neuron
 TYPES OF
NEURONS

1. UNIPOLAR/
PSEUDOUNIPOLAR (D)
2. BIPOLAR (E, F)
3. MULTIPOLAR (A, B, C)
 COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE SYNAPSE

ELECTRICAL IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL) (in the membrane of

presynaptic neuron)

RELEASE OF NEUROACTIVE SUBSTANCE (neurotransmitter /NT),

neurmodulator, neuromediator) from the presynaptic element)
(NT is stored in synaptic vesicles in the terminal, and then is released into
the synaptic cleft)

SYNAPTIC CLEFT (SPACE) (NT diffuse rapidly across the synaptic cleft)

BIND TO RECEPTOR SITES on the postsynaptic membrane

NEURON POSTSYNAPTIC MAY BE EXCITED/INHIBITED

(lead to the generation of action potential)
NEUROGLIA
 NEUROGLIA
NEUROGLIA (GLIAL CELL)
1.Oligodendrocyte
2. Astrocyte
4
3. Microglia

2 4. Ependymal cell

3 neuron
1

1
 GLIA (NEUROGLIA/GLIAL CELL)

FUNCTIONS:
STRUCTURE SUPPORT
MAINTAIN APPROPRIATE MICROENVIRONMENT FOR NEURONAL
FUNCTIONS
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Central glia Peripheral glia
TYPES OF GLIA

CNS PNS

ASTROCYTE OLIGODENDROCYTE MICROGLIA EPENDYMA

Protoplasmic Fibrous (Gray & white (Lining of cerebral
(Gray matter) (White matter) matter) ventricles)
SCHWANN CELLS
SATELLITE CELLS
 G
L FUNCTIONS: - Structural support
I - Functional support
A (maintains microenvironment of neuron)

1. ASTROCYTES:
- Framework for neuronal migration
(during development)
- Frame certain cluster of neurons
- Secrete growth factor
- Secrete cytokines
- Fill the space by breakdown of debris
(astrocyte proliferate and/or hypertrophy)
- Environment control (ionic/pH)
- Metabolism (participate in neurotransmitter
metabolism)
 2. OLIGODENDROCYTES
(occur in gray and whitematters)

Function: myelinisation
(the provision of electrochemically insulating sheath around
some axons in the white matter: myelin sheath
Myelin sheath:
-Increase speed of conduction of action potential (AP) along
the axon saltatory conduction
- Not continuous NODE OF RANVIER
(between two segments/internodal segments/internodes)
3. MICROGLIA (1% of the CNS cell population)

Developed from blood cells

(monocytic-macrophage)
Migrate to CNS

Phagocytic scavengers (when activated)

Activates microglia
CNS suffers injury
Migrate to the site of damage
Proliferate
Phagocytose cell debris
Produce cytokines (interleukins)
Antigen-presenting cells Participate in
autoimmune disease processes
NERVOUS NEURONS --------- RECEIVE/PROCESS/SEND
SYSTEM INFORMATION
GLIA --------- * CONTROL ENVIRONMENT
WITHIN THE CNS (MICRO-
ENVIRONMENT)
Shuttle nutritive molecules
(blood neuron)
Remove waste products of neurons
Maintain electrochemicals surroundings of neurons
Guiding developing neurons (migration)
Phagocytosis
Structural support for neurons

STRUCTURE CELL BODY (soma/perikaryon)

DENDRITES Info
OF NEURON PROCESSES
AXON TERMINALS
(Info)
TERMINAL ARBORS

TERMINAL BOUTONS

SYNAPSES

EFFECTOR / TARGET CELLS

CELL BODY (soma cell)
Contains:
Mitochondria (Power Plant)
Ribosomes
rER : stacks Nissl bodies
Golgi complex (Packing cell products)

UNIPOLAR/PSEUDOUNIPOLAR
(sensory ganglia) Peripheral/dendrite
Branch ----
TYPES OF NEURON BIPOLAR Central/axon
(see Tab. 2-1) (olfactory, auditory, vestibular)

MULTIPOLAR
(many area of CNS)
Neuronal pole
Principal parts of the brain /encephalon (medial aspect):
1. Cerebrum (Cerebral hemispheres + Diencephalon); 2. Brain stem
(truncus cerebri): Mesenc.+ Pons + Med. Obl.); 3. Cerebellum
 Cranial nerves
(N I N XII)
Originated in the brain stem,
except N I & N II
12 pairs CENTRAL
of cranial NERVOUS 31 pairs of
nerves Brain Spinal cord
SYSTEM spinal nerves
(CNS)*
(input to CNS from periphery) (output from CNS to periphery)

PERIPHERAL
Afferent NERVOUS Efferent
division SYSTEM (PNS) division

Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
Sensory Visceral system system
stimuli stimuli

Motor Sympathetic Parasympathetic

neurons nervous nervous
system system
* FUNCTIONAL
DIVISIONS OF THE Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle
NS Cardiac muscle
Glands
EFFECTOR ORGANS
 SPINAL CORD
(MEDULLA SPINALIS)
INSIDE THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
(in the vertebral canal)

31 SEGMENTS

31 PAIRS OF SPINAL NERVES CERVICAL (C) : 8

THORACAL (T) : 12
LUMBAR (L) : 5
SACRAL (S) : 5
COCCYGEAL (Co) : 1
CONTAINS: - SENSORY FIBERS
- MOTOR NEURONS
- ASCENDING/DESCENDING FIBERS
(PATHWAYS/TRACTS TO AND FROM THE BRAIN)
REFLEX CENTER
 Cervical (8)

Thoracic (12)

Lumbar (5)

Sacral (5)

Coccygeal (1)
SPINAL NERVE

(Spinal ganglion)
 Spinal cord in cross section
White matter (substantia alba) collection of nerve fibers
Grey matter (substantia grissea) collection of soma cells
 CLASSIFICATION
& GROUPS OF NEURONS

CNS

GROUP OF CELL BODIES

NUCLEUS A cluster of functionally related nerve cell bodies
(pl. nuclei)
COLUMN (in cerebral cortex, spinal cord)
LAYER/STRATUM/LAMINA (in spinal cord)

BUNDLE OF AXONS
TRACT A bundle of axons of a specific
FASCICULUS populations of functionally related fibers
(pl. fasciculi)
LEMNISCUS FUNICULUS (pl. funiculi)/
(pl. lemnisci) SYSTEM
 PNS

CELL BODIES
GANGLION A collection of cell bodies
(pl. ganglia)

SENSORY (dorsal root ganglion, cranial

nerve ganglion)
MOTORIC (visceromotoric gangl., autonomic gangl.)

AXONS
NERVES A bundle of axons
RAMUS
(pl. rami)
ROOT/RADIX
IT IS THE BRAIN THAT MAKES
MAN A MAN