Digital Microwave Communication Principles

Digital Microwave
Communication Principles
www.huawei.com
Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Foreword
This course is developed to meet the requirement of Huawei
Optical Network RTN microwave products.
This course informs engineers of the basics on digital microwave

communications, which will pave the way for learning the RTN
series microwave products later.
Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. Page 2
Learning Guide
Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the
electromagnetic field theory.
Therefore, before learning this course, you are supposed to have
mastered the following knowledge:
Network communications technology basics
Electromagnetic field basic theory
Objectives
After this course, you will be able to explain:
Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications
Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave
equipment
Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital
microwave equipment
Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and
various types of fading
Anti-fading technologies
Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission
link
Contents
1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview
2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment
3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies
5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links
Transmission Methods
in Current Communications
Networks Coaxial cable communication
Microwave TE Optical fiber communication
Microwave TE
MUX/DEMUX Microwave MUX/DEMUX
communication
Satellite communication
Microwave Communication
vs. Optical Fiber
Communication
Microwave Optical Fiber
Communication
Powerful space cross ability, little land Optical Communication
fiber burying and land
occupied, not limited by land privatization occupation required
Small investment, short construction Large investment ,long construction period

period, easy maintenance
Strong protection ability against natural Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required
disaster and easy to be recover and hard to recover from natural disaster
Limited frequency resources (frequency Not limited by frequency, license not

license required) required
Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

climate and landform and not affected by external factors
Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity
Definition of Microwave
Microwave
Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad
sense, the microwave frequency range is from 300 MHz to
300 GHz. But In microwave communication, the frequency
range is generally from 3 GHz to 30 GHz.
According to the characteristics of microwave propagation,
microwave can be considered as plane wave.
The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field
longitudinal components along the propagation direction. The
electric field and magnetic field components are vertical to
the propagation direction. Therefore, it is called transverse
electromagnetic wave and TEM wave for short.
Development of Microwave Communication
Transmissio
n capacity SDH digital microwave
155M bit/s/ch) communication
system
34/140M PDH digital microwave

communication
system
2/4/6/8M Small and medium
capacity digital microwave
communication system
Late 1990s to now
480 voice
channels Analog microwave
communication
system 1980s
1970s
1950s
Note:
Small capacity: < 10M
Medium capacity: 10M to 100M
Large capacity: > 100M
Concept of Digital
Microwave Communication
Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital
information in atmosphere through microwave or radio frequency (RF).
Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as
carrier .
Digital microwave communication refers to the microwave communication that
adopts the digital modulation.

The baseband signal is modulated to intermediate frequency (IF) first . Then
the intermediate frequency is converted into the microwave frequency.
The baseband signal can also be modulated directly to microwave frequency,
but only phase shift keying (PSK) modulation method is applicable.
The electromagnetic field theory is the basis on which the microwave
communication theory is developed.
Microwave Frequency Band
Selection and RF Channel
Configuration (1)in digital microwave transmission:
Generally-used frequency bands

7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)
1.5 2.5 GHz

GHz
Regional network
3.3 GHz Long haul 11 GHz

trunk
network Regional network, local
2/8/34
Mbit/s network, and boundary
network
34/140/155
Mbit/s
2/8/34/140/155
Mbit/s GHz
1 2 3 4 5 8 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0
Configuration (2) frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving
In each frequency band, subband

spacing (T/R spacing), and channel spacing are defined.
Frequency range
Low frequency f0 (center frequency) High frequency

band band
T/R spacing
Protectio T/R spacing
n
spacing
Channe Adjacent Channel

l channel T/R spacing
spacing spacing
f1 f2 fn f1 f2 fn
Configuration (3) Frequency range (7425M7725M)
f0 (7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M
28M
f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1=7596 f2 f5
7G F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing Channel Primary and

Frequency (MHz) Spacing (MHz) Non-primary
Range Stations
Fn=f0-161+28n,
74257725 7575 154 28 Fn=f0- 7+28n,
(n: 15)
7575 161 7
71107750 7275 196 28
7597 196 28
72507550 7400 161 3.5

Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (1)
Digital baseband signal is the unmodulated digital signal. The
baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted over microwave radio

channels and must be converted into carrier signal for microwave
transmission.
Channel bandwidth
Baseband signal
Modulati
rate
on
Digital baseband signal IF signal
Service
signal
transmitted
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (2)
The following formula indicates a digital baseband signal being converted
into a digital frequency band signal.
A*COS(Wc*t+) PSK and QAM

are most
frequently used
in digital
Amplitud Frequenc Phase microwave.
e y
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the
carrier amplitude (A). Wc and remain unchanged.
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the
carrier frequency (Wc). A and remain unchanged.
PSK: Phase Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the
carrier phase (). Wc and A remain unchanged.
QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. ). Use the digital baseband signal
to change the carrier phase () and amplitude (A). Wc remains unchanged.
Microwave Frame Structure (1)
RFCOH
171.072 Mbit/s
15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s
RFCOH SOH Payload
MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

11.84 64 16 64 2.24 864 144 32 kbit/s 288
Mbit/s kbit/s kbit/s kbit/s Mbit/s kbit/s kbit/s kbit/s
RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead
RSC: Radio Service Channel
MLCM: Multi-Level Coding Modulation
INI: N:1 switching command
DMY: Dummy
ID: Identifier
XPIC: Cross-polarization Interference Cancellation
FA: Frame Alignment
ATPC: Automatic Transmit Power Control
WS: Wayside Service
Microwave Frame Structure (2)
RFCOH is multiplexed into the STM-1 data and a block multiframe is
formed. Each multiframe has six rows and each row has 3564 bits. One
multiframe is composed of two basic frames. Each basic frame has 1776
bits. The remaining 12 bits are used for frame alignment.
Multiframe 3564 bits
FS Basic frame 1 FS Basic frame 2
6 bits
6 6
1776 bits 148 words 1776 bits (148 words)
bits bits
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I b I I C2 I I I I I a I I b I I C2
I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1
12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

I: STM-1 information bit
C1/C2: Two-level correction coding monitoring bits
FS: Frame synchronization
a/b: Other complementary overheads
Questions
What is microwave?
What is digital microwave communication?
What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency

bands?
What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?
What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are

the most frequently used modulation schemes?
Contents
Microwave Equipment Category
System Digital microwave Analog

microwave
MUX/DEMU
X Mode PDH SDH
Small and medium Large capacity

Capacity capacity (216E1, (STM-0, STM-1, 2xSTM-
34M) 1)
(Discontinued)
Trunk radio
Structure
Split-mount radio
All outdoor radio
Trunk Microwave Equipment
High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

transmission
capacity, more
stable performance, MSTU: Main Signal
applicable to long Transmission Unit
(transceiver, modem,
haul and trunk
P SDH electrical
transmission interface, hitless
M1 switching)
RF, IF, signal SCSU: Supervision,
processing, and M2 Control and Switching
MUX/DEMUX units Unit

are all indoor. Only

the antenna system BBIU: Baseband
is outdoor. Interface Unit
(option) (STM-1
optical interface, C4
SDH microwave PDH interface)
equipment
All Outdoor Microwave
Equipment
All the units are RF processing unit
outdoor.
IF cable
Installation is
easy.
IF and baseband
processing unit
The equipment
room can be Service and power cable
saved.
All outdoor microwave equipment
Split-Mount Microwave
Equipment
(1)
The RF unit is an outdoor unit
(ODU). The IF, signal processing, Antenna
and MUX/DEMUX units are
integrated in the indoor unit
IF cable
(IDU). The ODU and IDU are
connected through an IF cable.
ODU
The ODU can either be directly (Outdoor
mounted onto the antenna or Unit)
connected to the antenna
through a short soft waveguide. IDU
(Indoor Unit)
Although the capacity is smaller
than the trunk, due to the easy
installation and maintenance, fast
network construction, its the Split-mount
most widely used microwave microwave equipment
equipment.
Equipment (2)
Unit Functions
Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the
signal gain.
ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.
IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply
of ODU.
IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and
modulation/demodulation for services.
Equipment
Installation
Separate
Mount
Direct
Mount
antenna
(direct mount)
antenna
(separate
ODU
mount)
Soft
waveguide
OD IF cable IF cable
U
IDU IF port
IDU IF port
Microwave Antenna (1)
Parabolic antenna
Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Parabolic antennas is common type of microwave antennas.
Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m,2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m,
3.2metc.
Microwave Antenna (2)
Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one
antenna.
Chann Chann
el el
1 1
T
x 1 1
R
x
n n
T
x n n
R
x
Antenna Adjustment (1)
Side lobe
Side view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
Side lobe
Top view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
During antenna adjustment, change the direction
vertically or horizontally. Meanwhile, use a
multimeter to test the RSSI at the receiving end.
Usually, the voltage wave will be displayed as
shown in the lower right corner. The peak point of
the voltage wave indicates the main lobe position in
the vertical or horizontal direction. Large-scope
adjustment is unnecessary. Perform fine adjustment
on the antenna to the peak voltage point.
AGC
Voltage
When antennas are poorly aligned, a small detection
voltage may be detected in one direction. In this point
VAGC
case, perform coarse adjustment on the antennas at
both ends, so that the antennas are roughly aligned.
Angle
Side lobe position
The antennas at both ends that are well aligned Main lobe position
face a little bit upward. Though 12 dB is lost,
reflection interference will be avoided.
During antenna adjustment, the
two wrong adjustment cases are
show here. One antenna is aligned
to another antenna through the side
lobe. As a result, the RSSI cannot
meet the requirements.
Wrong Wrong Correct
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment
Antenna
Antenna gain

(1)
Definition: Ratio of the input power of an isotropic antenna Pio to the input power
of a parabolic antenna Pi when the electric field at a point is the same for the
isotropic antenna and the parabolic antenna.
2
Calculating formula of antenna gain: P D

G io
Pi
Half-power angle
Usually, the given antenna specifications contain the gain in the largest radiation
(main lobe) direction, denoted by dBi. The half-power point, or the 3 dB point is
the point which is deviated from the central line of the main lobe and where the
power is decreased by half. The angle between the two half-power points is called

the half-power angle. 0.5 (650 ~ 700 )
Calculating formula of half-power angle: D
Half-power angle
Equipment
Cross polarization discrimination
Antenna (2)

Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually, larger

than 30 dB.
XdB 10lgPo/Px
Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave
Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave

Antenna protection ratio
Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an antenna

compared with that in the main lobe direction. An antenna protection ratio of
180 is called front-to-back ratio.
Equipment
ODU (1) ODU system architecture Uplink IF/RF conversion
IF
Frequency Sideband Power RF
amplificat
mixing filtering amplification attenuation
ion
Local
oscillation Power
ATPC
(Tx) detection
Local
oscillation RF loop
(Rx)
IF Frequency Low-noise Bandpass

Filtering
amplification mixing amplification filtering
Supervi
sion and
control Downlink RF/IF conversion
signal
Alarm and control
Equipment
Specifications
ODU (2) of Transmitter

Working frequency band
Generally, trunk radios use 6, 7, and 8 GHz frequency bands. 11, 13 GHz and
higher frequency bands are used in the access layer (e.g. BTS access).
Output power
The power at the output port of a transmitter. Generally, the output power is
15 to
30 dBm.
Equipment
Local
ODU (3)stability
frequency
If the working frequency of the transmitter is unstable, the demodulated
effectived
signal ratio will be decreased and the bit error ratio will be increased. The
value
range of the local frequency stability is 3 to 10 ppm.
Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame

The frequency spectrum of the transmitted signal must meet specified
requirements, to avoid occupying too much bandwidth and thus causing too
much
interference to adjacent channels. The limitations to frequency spectrum is
called transmit frequency spectrum frame.
Equipment
Specifications of Receiver
ODU (4)
Working frequency band

Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on

the local
station is the transmitting frequency of the same channel on the
opposite station.
Local frequency stability

The same as that of transmitters: 3 to 10 ppm
Noise figure
The noise figure of digital microwave receivers is 2.5 dB to 5 dB.
Equipment
ODUPassband
(5)

To effectively suppress interference and achieve the best transmission quality, the
passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly chosen. The
receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.

Selectivity
Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,
especially the interference from adjacent channels, image interference and the
interference between transmitted and received signals.

Automatic gain control (AGC) range
Automatic control of receiver gain. With this function, input RF signals change
within a
certain range and the IF signal level remains unchanges.
Equipment
ODU (6)Frequency range (7425M7725M)
f0(7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M ODUs are of rich
types and small
volume. Usually,
ODUs are
Subband Subband Subband Subband Subband Subband produced by
A B C A B C small
manufacturers
and integrated
by big
manufacturers.
7442 7498
Non-primary station Primary station
ODU specifications are related to radio
frequencies. As one ODU cannot cover an
entire frequency band, usually, a frequency Types of ODUs =
Number of frequency
band will be divided into several subbands
bands x Number of T/R
and each subband corresponds to one ODU. spacing x Number of
Different T/R spacing corresponds to subbands x 2
different ODUs. (ODUs of some
manufacturers are also
Primary and non-primary stations have
classified by capacity.
different ODUs.
Equipment
IDU Service
channel
IF unit
Tributary
unit Microwave
Tx IF
frame Modula
multiplexi tion
Cross- ng
conne
Cable interface
ction Microwave From/to ODU
frame Rx IF
Demod
demultiplexi
ng ulation
Line unit
Service
O&M channel
interface
Supervision and control
Power
interface
DC/DC conversion
Questio
ns
What types are microwave equipment classified into?
What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have?

And what are their functions??
How to adjust antennas?
What are the key specifications of antennas?
What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and

receivers?
Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave

transmission?
Summary
Classification of digital microwave equipment
Components of split-mount microwave equipment and
their functions
Antenna installation and key specifications of antennas
Functional modules and key performance indexes of ODU
Functional modules of IDU
Signal flow of microwave transmission
Contents
Common Networking Modes of
Digital Microwave
Ring network Chain network
Add/Drop
network
Hub network
Types of Digital Microwave
Stations
Digital microwave stations are classified into Pivotal stations, add/drop
relay stations, relay stations and terminal stations.
Relay Add/Drop
station relay
station
Terminal
station
Pivotal Terminal
station station
Terminal
station
Types of Relay Stations
Passive Back-to-back antenna

Plane reflector
Relay station
Regenerative repeater
Active IF repeater
RF repeater
Active Relay Station
Radio Frequency relay station
An active, bi-directional radio repeater system without frequency
shift. The RF relay station directly amplifies the signal over radio
frequency.
Regenerator relay station

A high-frequency repeater of high performance. The regenerator
relay station is used to extend the transmission distance of microwave

communication systems, or to deflect the transmission direction of the
signal to avoid obstructions and ensure the signal quality is not
degraded. After complete regeneration and amplification, the received
signal is forwarded.
Passive Relay Station
Parabolic reflector passive relay station
The parabolic reflector passive relay station is composed of two
parabolic antennas connected by a soft waveguide back to back.
The two-parabolic passive relay station often uses large-
diameter antennas. Meters are necessary to adjust antennas,
which is time consuming.
The near end is less than 5 km away.
Plane Reflector Passive Relay
Station
Plane reflector passive relay station: A metal board which has smooth
surface, proper effective area, proper angle and distance with the two
communication points. It is also a passive relay microwave station.
Full-distance free space loss:

d1(km)
Ls 142.1 20 log d1d 2 20 log a
d 2(km)
a A cos 2
a is the effective area (m2) of the flat reflector.
Passive Relay Station (Photos)
Passive relay station Passive relay station

(plane reflector) (parabolic reflectors)
Application of Digital Microwave
Complementary
networks to optical
networks (access
the services from
the last 1 km)
Special transmission
BTS backhaul conditions (rivers,
transmission lakes, islands, etc.)
Microwave
application
Emergency
communications
Redundancy (conventions,
backup of activities, danger
important links elimination, disaster
relief, etc.)
VIP customer
access
Questio
ns
What are the networking modes frequently used for digital
microwave?
What are the types of digital microwave stations?
What are the types of relay stations?
What is the major application of digital microwave?
Contents
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading

Technologies
Contents
Technologies

4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
4.2 Various Fading in Microwave Propagation

4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Key Parameters in
Microwave Propagation (1)
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Zone Radius
Fresnel zone: The sum of the distance from P to T and the distance
from P to R complies with the formula, TP+PR-TR= n/2 (n=1,2,3, ). The
elliptical region encircled by the trail of P is called the Fresnel zone.
Fresnel zone radius: The vertical distance from P to the TR line in the
Fresnel zone. The first Fresnel zone radius is represented by F1 (n=1).
Key Parameters in
d1 (km) d 2 (km)
Formula of the first Fresnel zone radius:
F1 17.32
f (GHz ) d (km)
The first Fresnel zone is the region where the microwave transmission
energy is the most concentrated. The obstruction in the Fresnel zone

should be as little as possible. With the increase of the Fresnel zone
serial numbers, the field strength of the receiving point reduces as per
arithmetic series.
Key Parameters in
A
Clearance
M
h3
hc B
h1 hp
hs
h5
h2
h4 h6
d1 d2
d
Along the microwave propagation trail, the obstruction from buildings, trees,
and mountain peaks is sometimes inevitable. If the height of the obstacle
enters the first Fresnel zone, additional loss might be caused. As a result, the
received level is decreased and the transmission quality is affected. Clearance
is used to avoid the case described previously.
The vertical distance from the obstacle to AB line segment is called the
clearance of the obstacle on the trail. For convenience, the vertical distance hc
from the obstacle to the ground surface is used to represent the clearance. In
practice, the error is not big because the line segment AB is approximately
parallel to the ground surface. If the first Fresnel zone radius of the obstacle is
F1, then
Copyright hc/ Huawei
2006 F1 is the relative clearance.
Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. Page 56
Factors Affecting Electric Wave
Propagation
Terrain
The reflected wave from the ground surface is the major factor that affects the

received level.
Straight line
Straight line
Reflection Reflection
Smooth ground or water surface can reflect the part of the signal energy transmitted
by the antenna to the receiving antenna and cause interference to the main wave
(direct wave). The vector sum of the reflected wave and main wave increases or
decreases the composite wave. As a result, the transmission becomes unstable.
Therefore, when doing microwave link design, avoid reflected waves as much as
possible. If reflection is inevitable, make use of the terrain ups and downs to block the
reflected waves.
Propagation
Terrain
Different reflection conditions of different terrains have different effects

on electric wave propagation. Terrains are classified into the following four
types:
Type A: mountains (or cities with dense buildings)
Type B: hills (gently wavy ground surface)
Type C: plain
Type D: large-area water surface
The reflection coefficient of mountains is the smallest, and thus the

mountain terrain is most suitable for microwave transmission. The hill terrain
is less suitable. When designing circuits, try to avoid smooth plane such as
water surface.
Propagation Atmosphere
Troposphere indicates the low altitude atmosphere within 10 km from
the ground. Microwave antennas will not be higher than troposphere, so
the electric wave propagation in aerosphere can be narrowed down to that
in troposphere. Main effects of troposphere on electric wave propagation
are listed below:
Absorption caused by gas resonance. This type of absorption can

affect the microwave at 12 GHz or higher.
Absorption and scattering caused by rain, fog, and snow. This type
of absorption can affect the microwave at 10 GHz or higher.
Refraction, absorption, reflection and scattering caused by
inhomogeneity of atmosphere. Refraction is the most significant
impact to the microwave propagation.
Contents
Technologies


4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Fading in Microwave Propagation
Fading: Random variation of the received level. The variation is

irregular and the reasons for this are various.
Influence of
Fading Fading Receive
fading on
mechanis time d level
signal
m
fading
Frequency selective
Free space propagation
Down fading
K-type fading
Absorption fading
Slow fading
Fast fading
Scintillation
Flat fading
Rain fading
Up fading
Duct type fading
fading
fading
Free Space Transmission Loss
Free space loss: A = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f

(d: km, f: GHz). If d or f is doubled, the loss will increase by 6 dB.
d PTX = Transmit
GTX GRX power
PRX = Receive
power
G = Antenna gain
Power level
f A0 = Free space loss
M = Fading margin
G
PTX A0
PRX
G
M
Receiving threshold
Distance
Absorption Fading
Molecules of all substances are composed of charged particles. These
particles have their own electromagnetic resonant frequencies. When the
microwave frequencies of these substances are close to their resonance
frequencies, resonance absorption occurs to the microwave.
Statistic shows that absorption to the microwave frequency lower than 12
GHz is smaller than 0.1 dB/km. Compared with free space loss, the
absorption loss can be ignored.
10dB
1dB
0.1dB
0.01dB
60GHz 23GHz 12GHz 7.5GHz 1GHz
Atmosphere absorption curve (dB/km)
Rain Fading
For frequencies lower than 10 GHz, rain loss can be ignored. Only a few
db may be added to a relay section.
For frequencies higher than 10 GHz, repeater spacing is mainly

affected by rain loss. For example, for the 13 GHz frequency or higher, 100
mm/h rainfall causes a loss of 5 dB/km. Hence, for the 13 GHz and 15 GHz
frequencies, the maximum relay distance is about 10 km. For the 20 GHz
frequency and higher, the relay distance is limited in few kilometres due to
rain loss.
High frequency bands can be used for user-level transmission. The

higher the frequency band is, the more severe the rain fading.
K-Type Fading (1)
Atmosphere refraction
As a result of atmosphere refraction, the microwave propagation trail
is bent. It is considered that the electromagnetic wave is propagated
along a straight line above the earth with
R anR equivalent earth radius of
e e
, = KR (R: actual earth radius.)
The average measured K value is about 4/3. However, the K value of a
specific section is related to the meteorological phenomena of the
section. The K value may change within a comparatively large range. This
can affect line-of-sight propagation.
Re
R
K-Type Fading (2)
Microwave propagation
k > 1: Positive refraction
k = 1: No refraction
k < 1: Negative refraction
K-Type Fading (3)
Equivalent earth radius
In temperate zones, the refraction when the K value is 4/3 is
regarded as the standard refraction, where the atmosphere is the
standard atmosphere and Re which is 4R/3 is the standard
equivalent earth radius.
k=
4/3
1
2/3
Ground surface
Actual earth radius (r)
2/3 Ground surface

1
4/3
k=
Equivalent earth radius (rk)
Multipath Fading (1)
Multipath fading: Due to multipath propagation of refracted waves,
reflected waves, and scattered waves, multiple electric waves are
received at the receiving end. The composition of these electric waves
will result in severe interference fading.
Reasons for multipath fading: reflections due to non-uniform
atmosphere, water surface and smooth ground surface.
Down fading: fading where the composite wave level is lower than
the free space received level. Up fading: fading where the composite
wave level is higher than the free space received level.
Non-uniform
atmosphere
Water surface
Ground
Smooth ground surface
surface.
Multipath Fading (2)
Multipath fading is a type of interference fading caused by multipath
transmission. Multipath fading is caused by mutual interference between the
direct wave and reflected wave (or diffracted wave on some conditions) with
different phases.
Multipath fading grows more severe when the wave passes water surface
or smooth ground surface. Therefore, when designing the route, try to avoid
smooth water and ground surface. When these terrains are inevitable, use
the high and low antenna technologies to bring the reflection point closer to
one end so as to reduce the impact of the reflected wave, or use the high
and low antennas and space diversity technologies or the antennas that are
against reflected waves to overcome multipath fading.
Multipath Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Received power (dBm)
Flat Selective fading
Normal
Frequency (MHz)
Multipath Fading Flat Fading
Up fading
Received
level in free
space
Threshold level
(-30 dB)
1h
Signal
interruption
Duct Type Fading
Due to the effects of the meteorological conditions such as ground cooling
in the night, burnt warm by the sun in the morning, smooth sea surface,
and anticyclone, a non-uniform structure is formed in atmosphere. This
phenomenon is called atmospheric duct.
If microwave beams pass through the atmospheric duct while the receiving
point is outside the duct layer, the field strength at the receiving point is
from not only the direct wave and ground reflected wave, but also the
reflected wave from the edge of the duct layer. As a result, severe
interference fading occurs and causes interruption to the communications.
Duct type fading
Scintillation Fading
When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the
ambient due to the particle clusters formed under different pressure,
temperature, and humidity conditions, scattering occurs to the electric wave.
This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude and phase of different
scattered waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the composite field
strength at the receiving point changes randomly.
Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level
changes little and the main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will
not cause communications interruption.
Scintillation
fading
Summary
The higher the frequency is and the longer the hop distance is, the more
severe the fading is.
Fading is more severe at night than in the daylight, in summer than in
winter. In the daylight, sunshine is good for air convection. In summer,
weather changes frequently.
In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere
subdivision easily forms and hardly clears. Multipath transmission often
occurs in such conditions.
Fading is more severe along water route than land route, because both the
reflection coefficient of water surface and the atmosphere refraction
coefficient above water surface are bigger.
Fading is more severe along plain route than mountain route, because
atmosphere subdivision often occurs over plain and the ground reflection
factor of the plain is bigger.
Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.
Contents
Technologies


4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital
Microwave
Anti-fading Technologies
for Digital Microwave System (1)
Category Effect
Adaptive equalization Waveform distortion
Equipment
level Automatic transmit power
Power reduction
countermeasu control (ATPC)
re
Forward error correction
Power reduction
(FEC)
System level
Diversity receiving Power reduction and
countermeasu
technology waveform distortion
re
Frequency domain equalization
Multipath fading
Slope equalization
Signal frequency Frequency spectrum
spectrum after equalization
The frequency domain equalization only equalizes the amplitude

frequency response characteristics of the signal instead of the phase
frequency spectrum characteristics.
The circuit is simple.
Time domain equalization
Time domain equalization directly counteracts the

intersymbol interference.
T T T
C-n C0 Cn
After
Before
-2Ts -Ts Ts Ts
-2Ts -Ts
Automatic transmit power control (ATPC)
Under normal propagation conditions, the output power of the transmitter
is always at a lower level, for example, 10 to 15 dB lower than the normal
level. When propagation fading occurs and the receiver detects that the
propagation fading is lower than the minimum received level specified by
ATPC, the RFCOH is used to let the transmitter to raise the transmit
power.
Working principle of ATPC
Modulato Transmitte Receiver Demodulat
r r or
ATPC ATPC
Demodulat Receiver Transmitter Modulato

or r
ATPC: The output power of the transmitter automatically traces and
changes with the received level of the receiver within the control range of
ATPC.
The time rate of severe propagation fading is usually small (<1%). After
ATPC is configured, the transmitter works at a power 10 to 15 dB lower than
the nominal power for over 99% of the time. In this way, adjacent channel
interference and power consumption can be reduced.
Effects
of ATPC:
Reduces the interference to Reduces up fading
adjacent systems and over-reach
interference Improves residual BER
Reduces DC power consumption
ATPC adjustment process (gradual change)
Transmitter output level (dBm)

Received level (dBm)
-25
High level
-35 31
-45 Low level

21
-55
ATPC dynamic range

-72
45 75 85 102
Link loss (dB)
Cross-polarization interference
680MHz
cancellation (XPIC)
30MH 340MHz
z 80MHz
In microwave transmission, 60MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
XPIC is used to transmit two
V (H)
different signals over one
frequency. The utilization ratio of
H (V)
the frequency spectrum is
doubled. To avoid severe 680 MHz
interference between two 30MH 80MHz
340MH
z
different polarized signals, the z 60MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
interference compensation
direction
Electric field
V
technology must be used. (H)
Horizontal
polarization H
(V)
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X
1X 2X 3X' 4X 5X 6X 7X
Vertical polarization 8X
Frequency configuration of U6 GHz frequency band (ITU-R F.384-
Shape of waveguide interface
Diversity technologies
For diversity, two or multiple transmission paths are used to transmit the same
information and the receiver output signals are selected or composed, to reduce the
effect of fading.
Diversity has the following types, space diversity, frequency diversity, polarization
diversity, and angle diversity.
Space diversity and frequency diversity are more frequently used. Space diversity
is economical and has a good effect. Frequency diversity is often applied to multi-
channel systems as it requires a wide bandwidth. Usually, the system that has one
standby channel is configured with frequency diversity.
f1
H
f2
Space diversity (SD) Frequency diversity (FD)
Frequency diversity
Signals at different frequencies have different fading characteristics.

Accordingly, two or more microwave frequencies with certain frequency
spacing to transmit and receive the same information which is then
selected or composed, to reduce the influence of fading. This work mode
is called frequency diversity.
Advantages: The effect is obvious. Only one antenna is required.
Disadvantages: The utilization ratio of frequency bands is low.
f1
f2
for Digital
Space diversity Microwave System
(10) Signals have different multipath effect over different paths and thus have

different fading characteristics. Accordingly, two or more suites of antennas at

different altitude levels to receive the signals at the same frequency which are
composed or selected. This work mode is called space diversity. If there are n
pairs of antennas, it is called n-fold diversity.
Advantages: The frequency resources are saved.
Disadvantages: The equipment is complicated, as two or more suites of
antennas are required.
Antenna distance: As per experience, the distance between the diversity
antennas is 100 to 200 times the wavelength in frequently used frequency
bands. f1
f1
for Digital Microwave System
Dh calculation in space diversity Rx
(11)

Tx nl
l/2
Dh
h1
d
Approximately, Dh can be calculated according to this formula:
(nl l/2)d
Dh =
l: wavelength 2h 1
d: path distance
h1: height of the antenna at the transmit end
Apart from the anti-fading technologies introduced previously, here are
two frequently used tips:
Method I: Make use of some terrain and ground objects to block reflected
waves.
for Digital Microwave System
(13)
Method II: high and low antennas

Protection Modes of
Digital Microwave Equipment (1)
Hybrid coupler
With one hybrid coupler added between The 1+1 HSB can also be realized
two ODUs and the antenna, the 1+1 HSB in the configuration of two antennas.
can be realized in the configuration of one In this case, the FD and SD
antenna. Moreover, the FD technology can technologies can both be adopted,
also be adopted. which improves the system
availability.
Protection Modes of
N+1 (N3, 7, 11) Protection
In the following figure, Mn stands for the active channel and P stands for the
standby channel. The active channel and the standby channel have their
independent modulation/demodulation unit and signal transmitting /receiving
unit.
When the fault or fading occurs in the active channel, the signal is switched
to the standby channel. The channel backup is an inter-frequency backup.
This protection mode (FD) is mainly used in the all indoor microwave
equipment.
Products of different vendors support different specifications.
ch1 M1 M1 ch1
ch2 M2 M2 ch2
ch3 M3 M3 ch3
chP P P chP
Switching Switching
control unit RFSOH control unit
Protection Modes of
Configurati Remark
Protection Mode Application
on s
1+0 NP Non-protection Terminal of the

network
1+1 FD Channel protection Inter-

frequency Select the proper
mode depending on
1+1 SD Equipment protection Intra- the geographical
and channel frequency condition and
protection requirements of the
customer
1+1 FD+SD Equipment protection Inter-
and channel frequency
protection
N+1 FD Equipment protection Inter- Large-capacity

and channel frequency backbone network
protection
Questions
What factors can affect the microwave propagation?
What types of fading exists in the microwave propagation?
What are the two categories is the anti-fading technology?
What protection modes are available for the microwave?
Summary
Importance parameters affecting microwave propagation
Various factors affecting microwave propagation
Various fading types in the microwave propagation (free space
propagation fading, atmospheric absorption fading, rain or fog
scattering fading, K type fading, multipath fading, duct type fading, and
scintillation type fading)
Anti-fading technologies
Anti-fading measures adopted on the equipment: adaptive equalization,
ATPC, and XPIC
Anti-fading measures adopted in the system: FD and SD
Protection modes of the microwave equipment
Content
s
Contents

5.1 Basis of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
5.2 Procedures for Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
Basis of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
Requirement on the point-to-point line-of-sight communication
Objective of designing a microwave transmission line
Transmission clearance
Meanings of K value in the microwave transmission planning
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
Because the microwave is a short wave and has weak ability of
diffraction, the normal communication can be realized in the line-of-sight
transmission without obstacles.
Line propagation Irradiated wave

Antenna
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
In the microwave transmission, the transmit power is very small, only the
antenna in the accurate direction can realize the communication. For the
communication of long distance, use the antenna of greater diameter or
increase the transmit power.
Direction demonstration of the microwave antenna
Microwave antenna
Half power angle of

the microwave 3 dB
antenna
Objective of Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
In common geographical conditions, it is recommended that there

be no obstacles within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 4/3.
When the microwave transmission line passes the water surface or
the desert area, it is recommended that there are no obstacles
within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 1.
The first Fresnel zone
k = 4/3
Transmission Clearance (1)
The knife-edged obstacle blocks partial of the Fresnel zone. This also
causes the diffraction of the microwave. Influenced by the two reasons,
the level at the actual receive point must be lower than the free space
level. The loss caused by the knife-edged obstacle is called additional
loss.
Diff
rac
t ion
When the peak of the obstacle is in the line
connecting the transmit end and the receive
8
end, that is, the HC is equal to 0, the 6
4
additional loss is equal to 6 dB. 2
When the peak of the obstacle is above the 0
Additional loss (dB)

-2
line connecting the transmit end and the -4
receive end, the additional loss is increased -6

-8
greatly. -10
-12
When the peak of the obstacle is below the -14
line connecting the transmit end the receive -16

-18
end, the additional loss fluctuates around 0 -20
-22
dB. The transmission loss in the path and the -24
signal receiving level approach the values in -26
-28
the free space transmission. -2.5-2.0-1.5-1.0-0.5 0 0.51.0 1.52.02.5 HC/F1
Loss caused by block of knife-edged obstacle
Clearance calculation
Calculation formula for path clearance
h1d 2 h2 d1
hc hb hs
d
hc
The value of clearance
is required greater than h2
that of the first Fresnel
hs
Zones radius.
h1
hbstands for the d1 hb d2
projecting height of the d
earth.
d1d 2
hb 0.0785
K
K stands for the atmosphere refraction factor.
To present the influence of various factors on microwave transmission, the
field strength fading factor V is introduced. The field strength fading factor V
is defined as the ratio of the combined field strength when the irradiated
wave and the reflected wave arrive at the receive point to the field strength
when the irradiated wave arrives at the receive point in the free space
transmission.
E 2

hce
2
V 1 2 cos
E0 F1
wave E : Combined field strength when the irradiated wave and reflected
arrive
: Field at the receive
strength point
when the irradiated wave arrives at the
E
received0 point in
the free space transmission

: Equivalent ground reflection factor

The relation of the V and can be
represented by the curve in the figure on
the right. V dB
In the case that is equal to 1, with
the influence of the earth considered,
HC/F1 is equal to 0.577 when the signal
receiving level is equal to the free space
level the first time.
In the case that is smaller than 1,
HC/F1 is approximately equal to 0.6 when
the signal receiving level is equal to the
free space level the first time.
When the HC/F1 is equal to 0.577, the
clearance is called the free space HC/F1=N
clearance, represented by H0 and
expressed in the following formula: Relation curve of V and Hc/F1
H0 = 0.577F 1 = (d1d2/d)1/2
Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (1)
To make the clearance cost-effective and reasonable in the engineering,
the height of the antenna should be adjusted according to the following
requirements.
In the case that is not greater than 0.5, that is, for the circuit that
passes the area of small ground reflection factor like the mountainous
area, city, and hilly area, to avoid over great diffraction, the height of
the antenna should be adjusted according to the following
requirements:
When K = 2/3, HC 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC 0 (for knife-shaped obstacles)

The diffraction fading should not be greater than 8 dB in this case.
Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (2)
In the case that is greater than 0.7, that is, for the circuit that passes
the area of great ground reflection factor like the plain area and water
reticulation area, to avoid over great reflection fading, the height of the
antenna should be adjusted according to the following requirements
When K = 2/3, HC 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC 0 (for knife-edged obstacles)
When K = 4/3, HC F1
When K = , HC 1.35F1 (The deep fading occurs when HC = 21/2

F1.)
If these requirements cannot be met, change the height of the antenna
or the route.
Procedure for Designing a
Microwave Transmission Line
Step 1 Determine the route according to the engineering
map.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Microwave Transmission Line (1)
Step 1 Determine the route according to engineering map.
We should select the area that rolls as much as possible, such as the hilly area.
We should avoid passing the water surface and the flat and wide area that is
not suitable for the transmission of the electric wave. In this way, the strong
reflection signal and the accordingly caused deep fading can be avoided.
The line should avoid crossing through or penetrating into the mountainous
area.
The line should go along with the railway, road and other areas with the
convenient transportation.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
The distance between two sites should not be too long. The distance
between two relay stations should be equal, and each relay section
should have the proper clearance.
Select the Z route to avoid the over-reach interference.
Avoid the interference from other radio services, such as the satellite
communication system, radar site, TV station, and broadcast station.
f1 f1 f1
f2 f2 f2
The signal from the
first microwave
Over-reach station interferes
with the signal of the
interference
same frequency
from the third
microwave station.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain based on the data of each site.
Calculate the antenna height and transmission situation of each site. For the
line that has strong reflection, adjust the mounting height of the antenna to
block the reflected wave, or have the reflection point fall on the earth surface
with small reflection factor.
Consider the path clearance. The clearance in the plain area should not be
over great, and that in the mountainous area should not be over small.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Calculate the terrain parameters when the route and the site are already
determined.
Calculate the azimuth and the elevation angles of the antenna, distance
between sites, free space transmission loss and receive level, rain fading
index, line interruption probability, and allocated values and margin of the
line index.
When the margin of the line index is eligible, plan the equipment and
frequencies, make the approximate budget, and deliver the construction
chart.
There is special
network planning
Input
software, and the
commonly used is CTE
Pathloss.
Input
Questions
What are the requirements for microwave communication?
What is the goal of microwave design?
What extra factors should be taken into consideration for

microwave planning?
Can you tell the procedure for designing a microwave transmission

line?
Thank You
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Digital Microwave

Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

This course informs engineers of the basics on digital microwave

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

Microwave TE Optical fiber communication

Small investment, short construction Large investment ,long construction period

Limited frequency resources (frequency Not limited by frequency, license not

Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity

34/140M PDH digital microwave

1.5 2.5 GHz

3.3 GHz Long haul 11 GHz

spacing (T/R spacing), and channel spacing are defined.

Low frequency f0 (center frequency) High frequency

Channe Adjacent Channel

f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1=7596 f2 f5

7G F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing Channel Primary and

baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted over microwave radio

Digital baseband signal IF signal

A*COS(Wc*t+) PSK and QAM

15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s

RFCOH SOH Payload

MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

What is digital microwave communication?

What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency

What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?

What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

System Digital microwave Analog

Small and medium Large capacity

All outdoor radio

High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

are all indoor. Only

All outdoor microwave equipment

ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.

IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply

IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and

modulation/demodulation for services.

Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe

two wrong adjustment cases are

show here. One antenna is aligned

to another antenna through the side

lobe. As a result, the RSSI cannot

meet the requirements.

Wrong Wrong Correct

Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually, larger

Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an antenna

IF Frequency Low-noise Bandpass

ODU (2) of Transmitter

Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame

Working frequency band

Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on

Local frequency stability

passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly chosen. The

receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.

Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,

ACOS(Wct+) PSK and QAM