MYCORRHIZAE

DR. SITI SUNARIYATI, Msi

Faculty of teacher training and education of Palangkaraya

University
sunariyati1516@yahoo.com
Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae are modified roots consisting of symbiotic associations
of fungi and roots.
Mycorrhizae are not unusual and this plant-fungus symbiosis might
have been one of the evolutionary adaptations that made it
possible for plants to colonize land in the first place.
Almost 80 percent of all terrestrial plants can form mycorrhizal
associations.
Symbiosis

The symbiosis of mycorrhizae is mutualistic, meaning both

parties benefit. The fungus, which cannot photosynthesize
benefits from a hospitable environment and a steady
supply of sugar donated by the host plant.
The fungus provides increased surface area for water and
nutrient uptake. It also secretes a growth hormone that
stimulates roots to grow and branch. The fungus also
produces antibiotics that help protect the plant from
disease.
Mycorrhizae

Mycorrhizae have a greater surface area than the roots, so they

are able to absorb soil nutrients more efficiently and pass them
onto the roots. Almost every plant has some type of mycorrhizae
to enhance nutrient uptake.
In return, the fungi get photosynthetic products from the plants.
 Mycorrhizae

There are seven different types of mycorrhizae, and can be

distinguished by their positions along two gradients, from a lack of
penetrations of cortical cells (ectomycorrhizae) to penetration
(vesicular-arbuscular and arbuscular mycorrhizae) and from enclosed
(ectomycorrhizae) to open root (vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae).
Any natural ecosystem normally contains a mixture of types of
mycorrhizal associations.
The two main types of mycorrhizae are:
Endomycorrhizae and Ectomycorrhizae
Ectomycorrhizae

In ectomycorrhizae, the mycelium form a dense sheath or mantle,

over the surface of the root, but does not enter the root cell.
Hyphae extend from the mantle into the soil. Fungal hyphae
grow into the cortex of the root, making the root much thicker,
shorter, and more branched. The hyphae may aggregate to form
coarse hyphal strands or rhizomorphs.
Ectomycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizae do not form root hairs.

Ectomycorrhizae are especially common in woods plants,
including trees of the pine, spruce, oak, walnut, birch, willow, and
eucalyptus families.
The fungi often form mushrooms or truffles.
Endomycorrhizae

Endomycorrhizae are much more common than

ectomycorrhizae, and are found in over 90% of plant species.

Endomycorrhizae are within the root cell. They do not have a

dense mantle ensheathing the root, although microscopic
hyphae extend into the soil.

The hyphae extend inward by digesting small patches of the

root cell wall.
Endomycorrhizae hyphae

A hypha does not actually pierce the plasma

membrane and enter the cytoplasm of the host
cell, but instead grows into a tube formed by
invagination of the root cells membrane.

To the unaided eye, endomycorrhizae look like

normal roots with root hairs.
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza

Once the hyphae have penetrated the cell, some of the fungal
hyphae become highly branched to form dense knot-like
invaginations called arbuscles.
Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae

All but 2 genera of arbuscular mycorrhizae form

vesicles. Vesicles are lipid filled, terminal swelling of
hyphae. This primary function is storage.
AM Fungi

The hyphae of AM fungi can make up to 70% of the soils microbial

biomass.
Under the microscope, the hyphae are usually recognizably
distinct from other soil fungi. These septate hyphae are relatively
large, with smaller side branches that arise from bumps and angle
on the main trunk hyphae.
Other Mycorrhizae

Arbutoid mycorrhizae-look like ectomycorrhizae and similar fungi,

but are technically endomycorrhizae because the outer cortical cells
and hyphae fill the cells

Ectendomycorrhizae-related to ectomycorrhizae, except the fungus

enters the root cells.

Monotropoid mycorrhizae-found on certain plants without

chlorophyll, share a fungus with a nearby tree and are parasites of
the tree through the fungus. Ex: Indian Pipe
Other Mycorrhizae

Ericoid mycorrhizae - fungus grows loosely over lateral hair

roots of the host plant and the hyphae penetrate the single layer
of cortical cells. Ex: blueberries

Orchid mycorrhizae for all or part of their life cycle, orchids are
obligately dependent on their mycorrhizal partner.
Out of It

There are four major plant families that do not form mycorrhizae:

Amaranthaceae (Pigweed)
Brassicaceae (Mustard)
Chemopodiaceae (Goosefoot)
Zygophyllaceae (Caltrop)
 Ectomycorrhizae
Mycorrhizal fungi produce a hyphal network in soils consisting of
individual strands of hyphae or relatively undifferentiated bundles
of hyphae called mycelial strands. Some fungi can produce
rhizomorphs, which contain specialised conducting hyphae, or
sclerotia, which are resistant storage structures. Soil hyphae acquire
nutrients.
Fungal structures in soil
Absorptive hyphae
Mycellial
strand Scleridia

Mycorrhizal
root Rhizomorphs

Soil
Example of ECM short roots (arrows) of birch
(Betula alleghaniensis), an angiosperm tree. The
mycorrhizal short roots are thicker than other
laterals of the same order due to the mantle and
Hartig net.
 Early stage of
colonisation of pine short
root by Pisolithus
tinctorius. Hyphae
(arrows) have contacted
the root and are starting
to proliferate on its
surface near the apex (A).

SEM image showing the

next stage of pine root
colonisation by Pisolithus
tinctorius. Mantle hyphae
(arrows) have formed a
dense covering on the root
surface (arrows).
http://www.ffp.csiro.au/research/mycorrhiza/ecm.html
Pinus radiata and Amanita
muscaria ECM synthesised
under sterile conditions.
This association has highly
branched short roots with
many root tips (arrows).

Eucalyptus maculata and Astraeus

pteridis association synthesised under
sterile conditions with relatively
unbranched ECM and attached
mycelial strands (star).
 Hand section
cleared and
stained with
Chlorazol
black E and
viewed with
interference
contrast
microscopy

Populus tremuloides ECM root cross section showing labyrinthine

Hartig net hyphae (arrows) around elongated epidermal cells. This
complex hyphal branching pattern is considered to increase the
fungal surface area in contact with the root.
http://www.ffp.csiro.au/research/mycorrhiza/ecm.html
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae

The network of hyphae in the

soil is only connected to roots by
the entry points that initiate
mycorrhizal associations

Mycorrhizal root
system washed carefully
from coarse sand to
reveal the intact
network with external
hyphae (arrow) with
spores (S) produced by
Glomus mosseae.
http://www.ffp.csiro.au/research/mycorrhiza/ecm.html
Appressorium
At entry point Epidermis
Intercellular
Intracellular Hypodermis hyphae in air
hyphae channel

Arbuscules
Vesicle Cortex

A colony refers to hyphal growth within a

root resulting from the same external hyphae
(1 or more connected entry points). These are
also called infection units.
 Arbuscules (A) and
convoluted hyphae
(arrow) in the inner
cortex of an Asarum
canadense root.
Arbuscules only form in
the innermost cortex
cell layer next to the
endodermis in this
species.

Vesicles (V) produced

by a Glomus species in a
leek root. This root also
contains many
intercellular hyphae.
(Bar = 100 um)
http://www.ffp.csiro.au/research/mycorrhiza/ecm.html
 Functions of Mycorrhizal
Fungus uses organic nutrients (including sugars) produced by plant
ECM are not obligate mutualists but VAM are.

Fungi impart benefits to plant by increasing: nutrient absorption,

especially phosphorus, water uptake, tolerance of harsh environmental
conditions, including polluted environments
(e.g. acts as shield against acidity, elemental toxicity and pathogens).
 Factors that can affect of mycorrhizal
formation
> pH of soil----------------------------------------(-)
> soil moisture------------------------------------(-)
> soil depth----------------------------------------(-)
> amount of above ground plant cover--------(+)
> grazing-------------------------------------------(-)
> pesticides----------------------------------------(-)
> soil fertility--------------------------------------(-)
 Benefits of Mycorrhizae
Increased uptake of nutrients
Hyphae explore the soil for nutrients, increase surface area for nutrient absorption transport them back
to the plant.
The nutrients P, Zn, C, N, Cu and S have been shown to be absorbed and translocated to the
host by mycorrhizal fungi

Increased rootlet size and longevity

Mycorrhizal plants have larger roots than nonmycorrhizal plants regardless of whether mycorrhizal
fungi are present.
 Benefits of Mycorrhizae
Water relations
Hyphae explore the soil for water and increase surface area for absorption
Some mycorrhizae alter the plants physiology, increasing stomatal resistance, resulting in less water
loss.

Improved growth rate

 Benefits of Mycorrhizae

Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal pines -

Mycorrhizal vs non-mycorrhizal
grown in sand with low P content
 Benefits of Mycorrhizae
Tolerant of harsh conditions

fungi are more tolerant of acidity, elemental toxicity and high soil temperatures than are
higher plants and able to, in some cases (ectomycorrhizae), shield the root from these
condition.

Lower levels of heavy metals generally found in mycorrhizal plants than nonmycorrhizal
plants.
 Benefits of Mycorrhizae
Increased seedling survival
Mycorrhiza promotes plant survival, whether new seedlings or out-planted container stock.

Survival of inoculated plants can be up to five times the survival of uninoculated plants.

Improved survival is no doubt due to a combination of mycorrhizal benefits, including

faster growth to help overtop weeds, protection from pathogens, and improved drought
tolerance.
 Mycorrhizae and Plant diversity
Biodiversity of belowground fungal symbionts increases biodiversity of above
ground plants
Increased access to nutrients becomes restricted under competitive conditions
Differences in functional capacity of a specific fungus-plant combination appear
to explain the effect
In ecosystems, increased functional capacity allows one plant species to
perform better than others
Restored plant communities have been found to be more diverse when
mycorrhizal fungi are present when both inoculated and uninoculated areas
receive the same seed mix.
Mycorrhizae and Plant diversity
Basis for fungal species richness on plant biodiversity and production

No symbionts
Mycorrhizae and Plant diversity
Basis for fungal species richness on plant biodiversity and production

No symbionts One symbiont

Increasing diversity
Mycorrhizae and Plant diversity
Basis for fungal species richness on plant biodiversity and production

No symbionts One symbiont Two symbionts

Increasing diversity
Increasing productivity
Mycorrhizae and Plant diversity
Basis for fungal species richness on plant biodiversity and production

No symbionts One symbiont Two symbionts Four symbionts

Increasing diversity
Increasing productivity
Effects of mycorrhizal fungal species richness on plants

Van der Heijden et al. 1998

 Mycorrhizae and pathogens
Mycorrhizal fungi have long been known to help defend roots against soil-
borne disease.
Mycorrhizae promote beneficial bacteria that may be directly responsible for
protection against root pathogens.
Mycorrhizal fungi may reduce the incidence and severity of root diseases. The
mechanisms proposed to explain this protective effect include:
development of a mechanical barrier-especially the mantle of the EM-to infection by
pathogens
production of antibiotic compounds that suppress the pathogen,
competition for nutrients with the pathogen, including production of siderophores
induction of generalized host defense mechanisms.
 Disadvantage of Mycorrhizae
When the nutrient levels in the soil are so low and the fungus cannot extract
extra nutrients and no benefit accrues to the plant in return for carbon
transferred to fungus parasitism may be occur.

Sometimes plant growth suppression has been attributed to mycorrhizal

colonization, but usually this occurs only under unusual circumstances that
affect plant photosynthesis (low light and cold temperatures) or high-
phosphorus
 Mycorrhizae and Succession
Many below-ground processes, including plant-microbial interactions influence
the rate and direction of succession, whether primary or secondary.
Formation of mycorrhizae as one of the ten major successional processes that
determines change in species composition during succession.
Mycorrhizal fungi alter succession and community composition by altering the
relative success of plants, both in the seedling stage and during later
development
 Mycorrhizae and Succession
Succession on arid and semiarid lands is influenced in part by the relative
density of mycorrhizal inoculum.
The nonmycorrhizal of the early stages of succession are initially replaced by
facultative mycotrophs and finally by obligate mycotrophs.
Mycorrhizae less common in the early seral stages
More prevalent in low fertile sites and harsher environments
Many climax species are dependent on mycorrhizae
 Management of Mycorrhizae

Most of the mycorrhizal fungi are in the top 15 cm of the soil

Preserve topsoil and microbial activity
Do not use chemicals that kill fungi
Do not over-fertilize
Keep native plants
References

1. http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/mycorrhizas

2. Campbell, N.A. and Jane B. Reese. 2002. Biology 6th Ed., Benjamin
Cummings, San Francisco, CA.

3. Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., Parker, J. 2003. Brock Biology of

Microorganisms, 10th Ed.,
Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
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