Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

Eric G. Paterson
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University

Spring 2005
 Note to Instructors
These slides were developed1, during the spring semester 2005, as a teaching aid for the
undergraduate Fluid Mechanics course (ME33: Fluid Flow) in the Department of Mechanical
and Nuclear Engineering at Penn State University. This course had two sections, one taught by
myself and one taught by Prof. John Cimbala. While we gave common homework and exams,
we independently developed lecture notes. This was also the first semester that Fluid
Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications was used at PSU. My section had 93 students
and was held in a classroom with a computer, projector, and blackboard. While slides have
been developed for each chapter of Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, I
used a combination of blackboard and electronic presentation. In the student evaluations of my
course, there were both positive and negative comments on the use of electronic presentation.
Therefore, these slides should only be integrated into your lectures with careful consideration of
your teaching style and course objectives.

Eric Paterson
Penn State, University Park
August 2005

1
This Chapter was not covered in our class. These slides have been developed at the request of McGraw-Hill

ME33 : Fluid Flow 2 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Objectives

Understand how flow in open channels

differs from flow in pipes
Learn the different flow regimes in open
channels and their characteristics
Predict if hydraulic jumps are to occur
during flow, and calculate the fraction of
energy dissipated during hydraulic jumps
Learn how flow rates in open channels
are measured using sluice gates and
weirs
ME33 : Fluid Flow 3 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow
 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Open-channel flows are
characterized by the
presence of a liquid-gas
interface called the free
surface.
Natural flows: rivers,
creeks, floods, etc.
Human-made systems:
fresh-water aqueducts,
irrigation, sewers,
drainage ditches, etc.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 4 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Classification of Open-Channel Flows

In an open channel,
Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of
channel due to no-slip condition
Velocity is maximum at the midplane of the
free surface
In most cases, velocity also varies in the
streamwise direction
Therefore, the flow is 3D
Nevertheless, 1D approximation is made with
good success for many practical problems.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 5 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Flow in open channels is
also classified as being
uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the
depth y.
Uniform flow (UF)
encountered in long
straight sections where
head loss due to friction
is balanced by elevation
drop.
Depth in UF is called
normal depth yn

ME33 : Fluid Flow 6 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.
Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance
near the obstacle.
Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances
and usually connects UF and RVF.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 7 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Like pipe flow, OC flow can be laminar,
transitional, or turbulent depending upon the
value of the Reynolds number

Where
= density, = dynamic viscosity, = kinematic viscosity
V = average velocity
Rh = Hydraulic Radius = Ac/p
Ac = cross-section area
P = wetted perimeter
Note that Hydraulic Diameter was defined in pipe flows as
Dh = 4Ac/p = 4Rh (Dh is not 2Rh, BE Careful!)

ME33 : Fluid Flow 8 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
The wetted perimeter
does not include the
free surface.
Examples of Rh for
common geometries
shown in Figure at the
left.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 9 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Froude Number and Wave Speed
OC flow is also
classified by the
Froude number

Resembles
classification of
compressible flow
with respect to Mach
number

ME33 : Fluid Flow 10 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Froude Number and Wave Speed
Critical depth yc occurs at Fr = 1

At low flow velocities (Fr < 1)

Disturbance travels upstream
y > yc
At high flow velocities (Fr > 1)
Disturbance travels downstream
y < yc

ME33 : Fluid Flow 11 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Froude Number and Wave Speed
Important parameter in study
of OC flow is the wave speed
c0, which is the speed at
which a surface disturbance
travels through the liquid.
Derivation of c0 for shallow-
water
Generate wave with plunger
Consider control volume (CV)
which moves with wave at c0

ME33 : Fluid Flow 12 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Froude Number and Wave Speed
Continuity equation (b = width)

Momentum equation

ME33 : Fluid Flow 13 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Froude Number and Wave Speed
Combining the momentum and continuity relations and
rearranging gives

For shallow water, where y << y,

Wave speed c0 is only a function of depth

ME33 : Fluid Flow 14 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Specific Energy
Total mechanical energy of the
liquid in a channel in terms of
heads

z is the elevation head

y is the gage pressure head
V2/2g is the dynamic head
Taking the datum z=0 as the
bottom of the channel, the
specific energy Es is

ME33 : Fluid Flow 15 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Specific Energy
For a channel with constant
width b,

Plot of Es vs. y for constant V

and b

ME33 : Fluid Flow 16 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Specific Energy
This plot is very useful
Easy to see breakdown of Es into pressure (y) and
dynamic (V2/2g) head
Es as y 0
Es y for large y
Es reaches a minimum called the critical point.
There is a minimum Es required to support the given
flow rate.
Noting that Vc = sqrt(gyc)

For a given Es > Es,min, there are two different

depths, or alternating depths, which can occur for
a fixed value of Es
A small change in Es near the critical point causes
a large difference between alternate depths and
may cause violent fluctuations in flow level.
Operation near this point should be avoided.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 17 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Continuity and Energy Equations
1D steady continuity equation can
be expressed as

1D steady energy equation

between two stations

Head loss hL is expressed as in

pipe flow, using the friction factor,
and either the hydraulic diameter
or radius

ME33 : Fluid Flow 18 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Continuity and Energy Equations
The change in elevation head can be written in terms
of the bed slope

Introducing the friction slope Sf

The energy equation can be written as

ME33 : Fluid Flow 19 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Uniform Flow in Channels
Uniform depth occurs
when the flow depth (and
thus the average flow
velocity) remains
constant
Common in long straight
runs
Flow depth is called
normal depth yn
Average flow velocity is
called uniform-flow
velocity V0

ME33 : Fluid Flow 20 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Uniform Flow in Channels
Uniform depth is maintained as long as the slope, cross-
section, and surface roughness of the channel remain
unchanged.
During uniform flow, the terminal velocity reached, and
the head loss equals the elevation drop

We can the solve for velocity (or flow rate)

Where C is the Chezy coefficient. f is the friction factor

determined from the Moody chart or the Colebrook
equation

ME33 : Fluid Flow 21 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Best hydraulic cross
section for an open
channel is the one
with the minimum
wetted perimeter for a
specified cross
section (or maximum
hydraulic radius Rh)
Also reflects economy
of building structure
with smallest
perimeter

ME33 : Fluid Flow 22 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Example: Rectangular Channel
Cross section area, Ac = yb
Perimeter, p = b + 2y
Solve Ac for b and substitute

Taking derivative with respect to

To find minimum, set derivative to zero

Best rectangular channel has
a depth 1/2 of the width

ME33 : Fluid Flow 23 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Same analysis can be
performed for a trapezoidal
channel

Similarly, taking the derivative

of p with respect to q, shows
that the optimum angle is

For this angle, the best flow

depth is

ME33 : Fluid Flow 24 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Gradually Varied Flow
In GVF, y and V vary slowly,
and the free surface is stable
In contrast to uniform flow, Sf
S0. Now, flow depth reflects
the dynamic balance between
gravity, shear force, and
inertial effects
To derive how how the depth
varies with x, consider the total
head

ME33 : Fluid Flow 25 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Gradually Varied Flow
Take the derivative of H

Slope dH/dx of the energy line is equal to negative of the

friction slope

Bed slope has been defined

Inserting both S0 and Sf gives

ME33 : Fluid Flow 26 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Gradually Varied Flow
Introducing continuity equation, which can be written as

Differentiating with respect to x gives

Substitute dV/dx back into equation from previous slide,

and using definition of the Froude number gives a
relationship for the rate of change of depth

ME33 : Fluid Flow 27 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Gradually Varied Flow
This result is important. It
permits classification of liquid
surface profiles as a function
of Fr, S0, Sf, and initial
conditions.
Bed slope S0 is classified as
Steep : yn < yc
Critical : yn = yc
Mild : yn > yc
Horizontal : S0 = 0
Adverse : S0 < 0
Initial depth is given a number
1 : y > yn
2 : yn < y < yc
3 : y < yc

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 Gradually Varied Flow
12 distinct
configurations for
surface profiles in
GVF.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 29 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Gradually Varied Flow
Typical OC system
involves several
sections of different
slopes, with
transitions
Overall surface profile
is made up of
individual profiles
described on previous
slides

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 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Flow is called rapidly
varied flow (RVF) if the
flow depth has a large
change over a short
distance
Sluice gates
Weirs
Waterfalls
Abrupt changes in cross
section
Often characterized by
significant 3D and transient
effects
Backflows
Separations

ME33 : Fluid Flow 31 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Consider the CV
surrounding the
hydraulic jump
Assumptions
1. V is constant at sections
(1) and (2), and 1 and 2
1
2. P = gy
w is negligible relative to
the losses that occur
during the hydraulic jump
4. Channel is wide and
horizontal
5. No external body forces
other than gravity

ME33 : Fluid Flow 32 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Continuity equation

X momentum equation

Substituting and simplifying

Quadratic equation for y2/y1

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 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Solving the quadratic equation and keeping only the
positive root leads to the depth ratio

Energy equation for this section can be written as

Head loss associated with hydraulic jump

ME33 : Fluid Flow 34 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Often, hydraulic jumps
are avoided because they
dissipate valuable energy
However, in some cases,
the energy must be
dissipated so that it
doesnt cause damage
A measure of
performance of a
hydraulic jump is its
fraction of energy
dissipation, or energy
dissipation ratio

ME33 : Fluid Flow 35 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic
Jump
Experimental
studies
indicate that
hydraulic
jumps can be
classified into
5 categories,
depending
upon the
upstream Fr

ME33 : Fluid Flow 36 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Flow Control and Measurement
Flow rate in pipes and ducts is
controlled by various kinds of
valves
In OC flows, flow rate is controlled
by partially blocking the channel.
Weir : liquid flows over device
Underflow gate : liquid flows under
device
These devices can be used to
control the flow rate, and to
measure it.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 37 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gate
Underflow gates are located at
Free outflow
the bottom of a wall, dam, or
open channel
Outflow can be either free or
drowned
In free outflow, downstream
flow is supercritical
Drowned outflow
In the drowned outflow, the
liquid jet undergoes a hydraulic
jump. Downstream flow is
subcritical.

ME33 : Fluid Flow 38 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow

 Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gate
Schematic of flow depth-specific
Es remains constant for
energy diagram for flow through
idealized gates with
underflow gates
negligible frictional effects
Es decreases for real
gates
Downstream is
supercritical for free
outflow (2b)
Downstream is subcritical
for drowned outflow (2c)

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 Flow Control and Measurement
Overflow Gate
Specific energy over a bump at station 2 Es,2 can be
manipulated to give

This equation has 2 positive solutions, which depend

upon upstream flow.

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 Flow Control and Measurement
Broad-Crested Weir
Flow over a
sufficiently high
obstruction in an open
channel is always
critical
When placed
intentionally in an
open channel to
measure the flow
rate, they are called
weirs

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 Flow Control and Measurement
Sharp-Crested V-notch Weirs
Vertical plate placed in a
channel that forces the
liquid to flow through an
opening to measure the
flow rate
Upstream flow is
subcritical and becomes
critical as it approaches
the weir
Liquid discharges as a
supercritical flow stream
that resembles a free jet

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 Flow Control and Measurement
Sharp-Crested V-notch Weirs
Flow rate equations can be derived using energy
equation and definition of flow rate, and experimental
for determining discharge coefficients
Sharp-crested weir

V-notch weir

where Cwd typically ranges between 0.58 and 0.62

ME33 : Fluid Flow 43 Chapter 13: Open Channel Flow