Introduction

What is the
behaviour of this
structure under
variable driving
conditions?

Position as a function of time

Forces acting on the vehicle
Stability
etc 1
 Introduction
Forces acting on a Automobile
????????????????????

Aerodynamic
Force

Engine Force

Frictional Force
Frictional Force
Gravitational Force
2
 Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics
1. Fundamental Approach to Modelling
Dynamic behaviour of a vehicle is determined by the
forces imposed on the vehicle from the tires, gravity,
and aerodynamics.
To study the forces that will be produced in/by each
of the components, it is essential to develop a
thorough understanding and approach to modelling
the systems.

1.1 Lumped Mass

In general, a vehicle is made up of many
components. However in may situations all the
components can be treated as a unit, i.e. one
lumped mass located at its center of gravity (CG)

For example, under braking, the entire vehicle slows

down as a unit. Same is the case for acceleration,
and most turning analyses.
However, for the case of ride analysis, it is often
necessary to treat wheels as separate lumped
masses. 3
 1.2 Vehicle Coordination System
1.2.1 ISO based Standards

- Vehicle coordinate frame

B(Cxyz) is attached to the vehicle
at the mass centre C.

- x-axis is a longitudinal axis

passing through C and directed
forward.
- y-axis goes laterally to the left
from the drivers viewpoint.
- z-axis makes the coordinate a
right hand triad.
- Vehicle orientation can be
described by using three angles
Roll angle ()
Pitch angle ()
Yaw angle () 4
 1.2.2 SAE based Standards

- Vehicle coordinate frame B(Cxyz) is attached to the

vehicle at the mass centre C.
- x-axis is a longitudinal axis passing through C and
directed forward.
- y-axis goes laterally to the right from the drivers
viewpoint.
- z-axis makes the coordinate a right hand triad.
- Vehicle orientation can be described by using three
angles Roll angle (p)
Pitch angle (q)
Yaw angle (r)

SAE system is as good as the coordinate system

discussed before. However, have the z-axis
directed downward is sometimes inefficient and
confusing. 5
 1.3 Motion Variables

- Vehicle motion is usually described by the velocities

(forward, lateral, vertical, roll, pitch and yaw) with
respect to the vehicle (body) coordinate system, with
referenced to the earth fixed coordinate system.

1.4 Vehicle Position and Orientation

- The position and orientation of the vehicle in current
time increment is obtained by comparing the vehicle
coordinate Frame B (Cxyz) with global coordinate frame
G(OXYZ).
- Angle between x and X axes is the yaw angle.
Similarly, yaw and pitch angle. These angles are
called Euler angles.

6
 1.5 Forces

- Fx is called the longitudinal force acting in the forward

direction.
- Fy is called the lateral force acting along the y-axis in
vehicle coordinate system.
- Fz is the load acting on each tire.

7
2. Forward Vehicle Dynamics
This section is about the straight motion of an ideal
rigid vehicle in the absence of air and friction.

2.1 Parked Car on a Level Road

When a car is parked on a level pavement, the

normal force, Fz, under each of the front and rear
wheels, are

Where, a1 is the distance of the cars mass center,

C, from the front axle, a2 is the distance of C from
rear axle, and l is the wheel base.

8
 Problem
2.1 Parked Car on a Level Road
1. A car has 890 kg mass. Its mass center, C, is 78
cm behind the front wheel axis, and it has a 235
cm wheel base.
Find the reaction forces under the front and rear
wheel?
2. Reaction forces under the front and rear wheels
of a horizontally parked car, with a wheel base
l=2.34 m, are:

Find the position of mass center?

9
2.2 Parked Car on an Inclined Road
When a car is parked on an inclined pavement, the
normal force, Fz, under each of the front and rear
wheels, Fz1, Fz2, is:

where, is the angle of the road with the horizon.

The horizon is perpendicular to the gravitational
acceleration g.

10
2.3 Accelerating Car on a Level Road
When a car is speeding with acceleration a on a
level road as shown, the vertical forces under the
front and rear wheels are:

Static Part Dynamic Part

where, is the angle of the road with the horizon.

The horizon is perpendicular to the gravitational
acceleration g.

11
2.4 Accelerating Car on an Inclined Road
When a car is speeding with acceleration a on an
inclined road with an angle of as shown, the
vertical forces under the front and rear wheels are:

Static Part Dynamic Part

It must be noted that dynamic part depend on

acceleration and height of the mass center and
remain unchanged, while the static parts are
influenced by the slope angle and height of mass
center.

12
2.5 Parked Car on a Banked Road

Above figure shows the effect of a bank angle on

the load distribution of a vehicle. In general, a bank
causes the load on the lower tires to increase, and
the load on the upper tires to decrease. The tire
reaction forces are given by:

13
Problem:

1. A car having

is parked on a banked road with = 4 deg.

Calculate forces under the lower and upper tires of
the car?

14
2.6 Summary
For straight motion of a symmetric rigid vehicle, we
may assume the forces on the left wheel are equal
to the forces on the right wheel.

When a car is moving on an inclined road with

angle , the normal forces under the front and rear
wheels, Fz1, Fz2, are:

15
Problem Sheet : 1

16
Problem Sheet : 1 (Contd.)

17
Fundamentals of Vehicle Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic forces interact with the vehicle to
cause; drag, lift (or down load), lateral force,
moments in roll, pitch and yaw, and noise.
These impact fuel economy, handling and NVH.
3.1 Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
Gross flow of air over the body of a car is
governed by velocity and pressure relationship,
i.e. Bernoullis Equation or Euler Equation.
Equation is given by:

Bernoullis equation states that the static plus the

dynamic pressure of the air will be constant as it
approaches the vehicle.
Wind tunnel is used to study this phenomena.

18

See Gillespie page 81 for details

3.2 Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
Experimentally measured pressures plotted
perpendicular to the surface.

Negative pressure at the front edge of the hood

Adverse pressure gradient in this region has the
potential to stall the boundary layer flow creating
Drag.
Near the base of the windshield and cowl, high
pressure is experienced due to upward turn of flow.
High pressure region is an ideal location for
inducting air for climate control systems or engine
intake.
High pressure means low velocities, i.e. windshield
wipers will not be disturbed by aerodynamic forces.
Air pressure goes negative over the roof line.
Flow along the sides of the car will feed air into this
region and will cause separation. 19

See Gillespie page 81 for details

 Choice of shape of the back of a car has a direct
impact on the separation of air flow.
Separation must occur at some point and the
smaller the area, lower the drag.
Size of the separation area affects the
aerodynamic drag directly
The extent to which the flow is forced to turn down
behind the vehicle affects the aerodynamic lift at the
rear.

20
 Aerodynamic design at the rear is the potential for
dirt deposition on back.
The high degree of turbulence in the separation
zone entrains moisture and dirt kicked up from the
road.
If the separation zone included the complete rear
then dirt will be deposited on these areas and vision
will be obstructed.

3.3 Aerodynamic Forces

Drag Rolling Moment
Side Force Pitching Moment
Lift Yawing Moment

21
3.4 Drag Components
Drag is the largest and most important
aerodynamic force encountered by a vehicle.
Overall drag is contribution from many sources.

67% of the drag arises from the body

Major contributor is the afterbody because of the
drag produced by the separation zone at the rear.

22
3.5 Aerodynamic Aids
Bumper Spoilers
Air Dams
Deck Lid Spoilers
Window and Pillar Treatments

23
3.6 Optimization

Minor modifications to reduce Drag are shown

above.
Change is Air Dam (A)
Hood line (B)
A-pillar shape (C)
D-pillar shape (D and E)
Graph illustrates the magnitude of drag reduction
obtained from various combinations of these
changes. 24
An overall 21% reduction in Drag is achieved.
3.7 General Expression for Aerodynamic Drag
Aerodynamic drag is characterized by the
equation:

Air density (lb/ft3) is variable depending on

temperature, pressure and humidity conditions and
is given by:

In metric system:

25
3.8 Drag Coefficient for Vehicle Shapes
Coefficient of drag is determined experimentally
from wind tunnel tests:

Drag coefficient varies over a broad range with

different shapes.

In general, relative wind seen by a vehicle will

consist of the large component due to its speed,
plus a smaller atmospheric wind component in any
direction.
If wind is blowing towards the vehicle, Headwind
If wind is blowing in the direction of travel, Tailwind
26
3.9 Side Force due to Side Winds
Lateral wind components will also impose a side
force on the vehicle attempting to change its
direction.
Cross wind condition on the road results into
lateral force which tries to divert the vehicle.
Aerodynamic shape and steering system
characteristics affect the performance of the vehicle.
Under steady-state wind conditions, the side force
imposed on a vehicle in a crosswind is given by:

27
3.10 Lift Force
The pressure differential from the top to the bottom
of the vehicle causes a Lift force.
Play a significant role in driving stability.
During experiments, Lift force is measured at the
centerline of the vehicle at the center of the
wheelbase, given by:

Lift force depends on the overall shape of the

vehicle.

28
 Lift can have a negative impact on handling
through the reduced control forces available for
tires.
Front lift, reduces steering controllability.
Front lift can be reduced by front bumper spoilers.
Lift can be decreased by use of under body pans,
spoilers, and a change in the angle of attack of the
body.

3.11 Fuel Economy

Aerodynamic drag is the most important of the
aerodynamic properties.
In 1970s, drag coefficient of 0.4 to 0.5 were
common on relatively large cars.
In 1980s, it was less than 0.4.
Exact improvements in fuel economy are difficult to
predict because of uncertainty about the ways cars
are used and driven.

29
Problems

30
4.9 Tire Stiffness
As an applied approximation, the vertical force
(wheel load) Fz is a linear function of the normal
tire deflection z measured at the tire center.

Lateral force Fy can be calculated as

Longitudinal force Fx can be calculated as

where kx,ky, and kz are longitudinal, lateral and

vertical stiffness

31
In general,
4.10 Rolling Resistance
A turning tire on the ground generates a
longitudinal force called rolling resistance.
The force is opposite to the direction of motion
and is proportional to the normal force on the
tireprint.

The parameter r is called the rolling friction

coefficient.
The parameter r is not a contant and depends
on tire speed, inflation pressure, sideslip and
camber angles.
It also depends on mechanical properties,
speed, wear, temperature, load, size, driving and
braking forces, and road condition.

Effect of velocity on rolling friction coefficient:

Effect of Inflation Pressure and Load on the

Rolling Friction Coefficient:

32
 Effect of Sideslip Angle on Rolling Resistance:

When a tire is turning on the road with a sideslip

angle , a significant increase in rolling
resistance occurs.

The rolling resistance force is then given by

4.11 Longitudinal Force

To accelerate or brake a vehicle, longitudinal
forces must be developed between the tire and
the ground.
The longitudinal force is proportional to the
normal force
33
where x(s) is called the longitudinal friction
coefficient and is a function of slip ration s.
The longitudinal slip ratio s of a tire is

Where Rg is the tires geometric and unloaded

radius, w is the tires angular velocity, and vx is
the tires forward velocity.

-From figure, it can be inferred that for small

longitudinal slip ratio (s < 0.1 on dry surface), the
longitudinal tire force is directly proportional to
the slip ratio.

where Csx is the longitudinal slip coefficient. 34

4.12 Lateral Force
When a turning tire is under a vertical force Fz
and a lateral force Fy, its path of motion makes
an angle with respect to the tire plane.
maximum tire grip

Linear Saturation Loss of control

Experimental results have shown that the lateral tire

force at small slip angle is proportional to the slip
angle.

35
Similar to the longitudinal force, lateral force can be
given as:
Fyf C f Front Tire

Fyr C r Rear Tire

Where C the cornering stiffness parameters of the

front and rear tire.

4.13 Camber Force

Camber angle is the tilting angle of tire about
longitudinal x-axis.

Camber angle generates a lateral force called

camber trust or camber force. At low camber
angles this force is given by

where C is called the camber stiffness of tire.

36
In the presence of both, camber and sideslip angle,
the overall lateral force Fy-total on a tire is a
superposition of the corner force and camber trust.

The effects of cambering are

particularly important for motorcycles.
For cars and trucks, the cambering
angles are much smaller and in many
applications negligible.

Problem # 1

37
4.14 Car Tire Relative Angles
There are four major wheel alignment parameter
that affect vehicle dynamics:
-Toe Angle
-Camber Angle
-Caster Angle
-Trust Angle

4.14.1 Toe Angle

When a pair of wheels is set so that their leading
edges are pointed toward each other, the wheel
pair is said to have Toe-in.
If the leading edges point away from each other,
the pair is said to have toe-out.

38
Toe settings affect three major performances:
-Tire wear
-Straight-line stability
-Corner entry handling

Toe-in causes:
-Accelerated wear at the outboard edges of the
tires.
+Increases the directional stability of the vehicle.
- Makes the steering function lazy.

Toe-out causes:
-Accelerated wear at the inboard edges of the
tires.
-Makes the vehicle unstable.
+increases the steering response.
4.14.2 Caster Angle
It is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is
tilted forward or rearward from vertical, as
viewed from side.

39
Negative caster aids in centering the steering
wheel after a turn and makes the front tires
straighten quicker.
Most street cars are made with 4-6 deg negative
caster.

4.14.3 Camber Angle

Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to
vertical line to the road, as viewe from the front
or the rear of the car.

Camber angle contributes to the lateral force

developed between the tire and the ground
during cornering. (discussed in previous classes)

40
4.14.4 Trust Angle
The trust angle v is the angle between vehicles
centerline and the line perpendicular to the rear
axle.

It compares the direction that the rear axle is

aimed with the centerline of the vehicle.
A non-zero trust angle would have unequal toe-
in or toe-out on both sides of the axle.

41
 Driveline Dynamics
Maximum achievable acceleration of a vehicle is
limited by two factors:
Engine and Transmission Performance
Tire-road Friction
5.1 Engine Dynamics
The maximum attainable power of an internal
combustion engine is a function of angular velocity.

This function is called power performance function

and must be determined experimentally.
However, it can be estimated by a third-order
polynomial.

42
Where P1, P2, and P3 are power factors. For spark
ignition engines these factors are given by:

Where M is the angular velocity at maximum

engine power PM.
Similarly, for indirect injection Diesel engines:

For direct injection Diesel engines

The driving torque Te is given by:

43
Problems Engine Dynamics

Any engine with power around 100 hp would be

enough for street cars.
Race cars may have higher power depending on the
race regulations. 44
For example, Formula 1: Four stroke engine,
<3000cc, <10 cynlinders, <5 valves per cylinder.
5.2 Driveline and Efficiency
A driveline includes the engine, clutch, gearbox,
propeller shaft, differential, drive shafts, and drive
wheels.

Engine is the power source in the driveline.

Clutch connects and disconnects the engine to the
rest of the driveline.
Gearbox is used to change the transmission ratio
between engine and the drive wheels.
Propeller shaft connects the gearbox to the
differential. Absent in front-engine front-wheel-drive
and rear-engine rear-wheel-drive vehicles. In those
vehicle, differential is integrated with the gearbox in
a unit and is called transaxle.
Differential is a constant transmission ratio
gearbox that allows the drive wheels to have
different speeds.
Drive shafts connect the differential to the drive 45
wheels.
The input and output torque and angular velocity for
each device in a driveline are indicated below:

The power available at the drive wheels is:

Power available at wheels Engine power

Where < 1 indicates the overall efficiency between

the engine and the drive wheels.

c < 1 is the convertor efficiency and t < 1 is the

transmission efficiency.
The relationship between the angular velocity of the
engine and the velocity of the vehicle is

Where ng is the transmission ratio of the gearbox, nd

is the transmission ratio of the differential, e is the
46
engine angular velocity, and Rw is the effective tire
radius.
5.3 Gearbox and Clutch Dynamics
Internal combustion engine cannot operate below
a minimum engine speed min.
Therefore, the vehicle cannot move slower than a
minimum speed vmin

At starting and stopping stages of motion, the

vehicle needs to have speeds less than minimum
velocity (as above).
Therefore, a clutch or a torque converter must be
used for starting, stopping, and gear shifting.
Consider a vehicle with only one drive wheel.
The forward velocity (vx) of the vehicle will be
proportional to the angular velocity of the engine
(e) and is given by:
Speed
equation

Similarly, tire traction force Fx is proportional to the

engine torque Te, and is given by
Traction
equation

Where Rw is the effective tire radius, nd is the

differential transmission ratio, ni is the gearbox
transmission ratio in gear number i, and is the
overall driveline efficiency.
47
 Speed and traction equations can be used to
calculate the gear ratios of a gearbox as well as
vehicle performance.
Theoretically the engine should work at its
maximum power to have the best performance.
However, to control the speed of the vehicle, we
need to vary the engines angular velocity.
Therefore, we pick an angular velocity range
(1,2) around M, which is associated to the
maximum power and sweep the range repeatedly at
different gears.
The range (1,2) is called engines working
range.

48
Problem Sheet:

49
 Suspension System
6.1 Suspension Mechanisms

Definition
The suspension is what links the wheels to the
vehicle body and allows relative motion.

Function Performed through the Suspension Linkage

- Steer
- Stop the vehicle
- Propel
- Support the associated forces

Classification of Suspension Mechanisms

- Dependent Suspension
- Independent Suspension

50
Classification of Suspension Mechanisms
- Dependent Suspension
A suspension with a solid connection between the
left and right wheels.

- Independent Suspension
A suspension which lets a wheel to move up and
down without affecting the opposite wheel.

51
Dependent Suspension (Solid Axle Suspension)

- Leaf Springs Suspension

- Solid axle must be attached to the body such that an up
and down motion, as well as roll rotation of the wheel is
possible.
- There are many combinations of links and springs that
can provide these kinematic and dynamic requirements.

- A simplest of the design is to clamp the axle to the

middle of two leaf springs with their ends tied to the
vehicle frame.

- When a solid axle is connected to the body with nothing

but two leaf springs, it is called the Hotchkiss drive.
drive

- Main problem of this system is to locate the axle under

lateral and longitudinal forces and having a low mass
ratio .

ms Sprung mass

mu Unsprung mass

52
Dependent Suspension (Solid Axle Suspension)

Leaf Springs Suspension

- Springs are supposed to flex
under load, but their flexibility is
needed in only one direction.
However, leaf springs have the
tendency to twist and bend
laterally.
- Another problem is these
springs are not suited to take up
the driving and braking traction
forces. These forces generate
negative caster angle, i.e.
increases instability.

- To over come the above

problem, the axle may be
attached to the chassis by a
longitudinal bar (anti-tramp bar)
bar
- This causes a twisting angle
problem when axle is moving up
and down.

53
- High spring rate is a problem of leaf springs.

- This can be overcome by reducing their stiffness, either by

narrowing them or using fewer leaves.

- However, this reduces lateral stiffness.

- To overcome this problem, a Panhard arm,

arm i.e. a bar is
used to attach the solid axle suspension to the chassis
laterally.
- A double triangle mechanism is an alternative design to
guide the axle and support it laterally.

54
Coil (Helical) Springs Suspension
- Solid axle and the leaf spring mass are generally counted
as unsprung mass. They cause lower mass ratio, which
ruins both, the ride and handling of a vehicle.

- To decrease the unsprung mass and increase vertical

flexibility of solid axle suspensions, it is possible to use coil
springs.

- Coil springs are less stiff with better ride comfort

compared to leaf springs.

55
Independent Suspension

Coil (Helical) Springs Suspension

- Independent suspensions are introduced to let a
wheel to move up and down without affecting the
opposite wheel.
- There are may forms and designs available, however
double A-arm and McPherson strut suspensions are
the simplest and the most common designs

- Double A-arm is also known as double wishbone,

wishbone or
short/long arm suspension.
suspension

56
Roll Stiffness and Antiroll Bar

- Vehicles with coil springs usually have less roll stiffness

than vehicles with leaf springs.

- To increase the roll stiffness of such suspensions, an

antiroll bar must be used.

- The antiroll bar is also called stabilizer.

stabilizer

- Leaf springs with reduced layers, uni-leaf, trapezoidal, or

nonuniform thickness may also need an antiroll bar to
compensate the reduced roll stiffness.

57
 6.2 Roll Center
- Roll axis is the instantaneous line about which the body of
a vehicle rolls.

- Roll axis is found by connecting the roll centre of the front

and rear suspensions of the vehicle.

- In other words, the roll centre of the front or rear

suspension is the instantaneous centre of rotation of the
body with respect to the ground.

Steps to find the Roll Center of a Suspension System

- Let us assume a sample of the front suspensions of a car
with a double A-arm mechanism.

-To find the roll centre of the body with respect to ground, a
two dimensional kinematically equivalent mechanism
should be constructed.

- Next step is to determine the suspension roll centre, it is

the instant centre of rotation of a wheel with respect to the
body.
58
Double A-arm front suspensions

Kinematic Equivalent Mechanism

59
 Roll Center

- Find the virtual reaction point of the suspension links

(point I28 and I38).
- Draw a line from the tire-ground contact patch to the
virtual reaction points.
- The point where this line crosses the centerline of the
body is the roll center (I18)

60
6.3 Types of Suspension in Terms of Functioning

- Passive Suspension
-Consists of conventional components with spring and damping
(shock absorber) properties.

- Self-leveling Suspension
-A variation of the passive suspension in which the primary lift
component can adjust for changes in load. (generally air
springs are used)

- Semi-active Suspension
-Contain spring and damping elements, the properties of which
can be changed by an external control.

- Full-active Suspension
-Incorporate actuators to generate the desired forces in the
suspension.
-Actuators are generally hydraulic cylinder.

61
6.4 Performance of a Suspension System
- Ride Control
-Control the pitch and bounce motions of the vehicle body.

- Height Control
-To keep height constant despite changes in load or
aerodynamic forces the suspension always operate at the
design ride height.
- Height can be elevated for increased ground clearance
and suspension stroke on bad roads.

- Roll Control
-Roll control in cornering is improved by increasing
damping or exerting anit-roll forces in suspension during
cornering.

- Dive Control
-Control of forward pitch during braking can be improved
by increasing damping or exerting anti-pitch forces in the
suspension.
- Squat Control
-Control of rearward pitch during acceleration.
- Road Holding
-Can be improved by reducing the dynamic variations in
wheel loads that are caused from road roughness.

62
6.5 Suspension System Modelling
- Suspension system can be modelled as a combination
spring-damper system.

Tire

- Following is the spring-damper model of one tire.

- If tire is assumed to be rigid, such model is termed as

1/8 model of a vehicle.
63
- Equation of motion for this system is given as

If z be the relative displacement between wheel and

vehicle body

By introducing natural frequency n and damping ratio

The equation of motion can be transformed to

This equations is then used to study the dynamic

response of the suspension system, by evaluating the
frequency response and finding an optimum value of 64
stiffness and damping.
Equivalent Stiffness of a Spring
In general springs in suspension are not absolutely
vertical, as shown in figure below.

In such cases, it is required to compute the equivalent

stiffness of a spring.
A tilted spring is shown in the figure (a), while an
equivalent spring system with horizontal spring is shown
in figure (b)

65
Equivalent stiffness of the spring in figure (b) will be
derived in the following.
Consider a mass-spring system such that the spring
makes an angle with the axis of mass translation.
When the mass m is in motion, such as is shown in figure
(a), its free body diagram is as shown in figure (b).

If the motion of mass m is x<<1, we ignore any changes

in and then, as shown in figure (c), the spring
elongation is

Therefore, the spring force fk is

66
The spring force may be project on the x-axis to find the x
component, fx, that moves the mass m

The tilted spring can be substituted with an equivalent

spring keq on the x-axis that needs the same force, fx, to
elongate the same amount as the mass moves.

Displaced spring: We may similarly substitute the system

shown in (a) with a translational mass-spring system
shown in (b).

The equivalent spring stiffness is given by

67
Equivalent spring and damper for a McPherson
suspension
Figure (a) illustrates a McPherson strut mechanism and its
equivalent vibrating system in (b).

The equivalent spring stiffness and equivalent damping

coefficient can be derived as discussed before.

Problem
A suspension system designer is designing a McPherson
type suspension system shown above. What stiffness
and damping coefficients he/she must select so that the
equivalent stiffness is 9869.6 N/m and equivalent
damping coefficient is 87.965 Ns/m. The suspension
system parameters are a = 19 cm, b = 32 cm, and =
68
27.
 Steering System Dynamics
Definition
Steering Mechanism is needed to turn the wheels
during maneuver of a vehicle.
7.1 Fundamentals of Steering System

Consider a front-wheel steering vehicle that is turning to

the left, as shown in figure.

When the vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a

kinematic condition between the inner and outer wheels
that allows them to turn slip free.
The condition is called the Ackerman condition, it states
To have all wheels turning freely on a curved road, the
normal line to the center of each tire-plane must intersect
at a common point, and is expressed as

69
where, i is the steer angle of the inner wheel, and
o is the steer angle of the outer wheel.
The distance between steer axes of the steerable
wheels is called the track and is shown by w.
The distance between the front and real axles is
called the wheel base and is shown by l. Track w
and wheelbase l are considered as kinematic width
and length of the vehicle.
The mass center of a steered vehicle will turn on a
circle with radius R,

Proof
Consider a vehicle turning left with turning center
O.

70
where, i is the steer angle of the inner wheel, and
o is the steer angle of the outer wheel, which can
be calculated from triangles OAD and OBC as
follows:

Eliminating R1

provides the Ackerman condition, which is a

direction relationship between i and o.

71
To find the vehicles turning radius R, we define an
equivalent bicycle model.

The radius of rotation R is perpendicular to the

vehicles velocity vector v at the mass center C.
Using the geometry shown in the bicycle model, we
have

72
The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed
of the vehicle is too small and slip angles are zero.
There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to
balance each other.
The Ackerman condition is also called the
kinematic steering condition, because it is a static
condition at zero velocity.

Fast moving vehicles steering systems

When the vehicle turns fast, significant lateral
forces are developed due to high slip angles.
Under this condition the inner front wheel of an
Ackerman steering vehicle would be at a higher slip
angle than required for maximum lateral force.
Therefore, the inner wheel of a vehicle in a high
speed turn must operate at a lower steer angle
than kinematic steering.

The correct steer angle is a function of the instant

wheel load, road condition, speed, and tire
characteristics. Hence, it is required to control the
steer angle of each steerable wheel independently
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using a smart system.
Class Problem:
Consider a car with the following dimensions and
steer angle, as shown below:

Compute the kinematic steering characteristics of

the vehicle?

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7.2 Space Requirement

The kinematic steering condition can be used to calculate

the space requirement of a vehicle during turning.
Consider the front wheels of a two-axle vehicle, steered
according to the Ackerman geometry.

The maximum radius Rmax can be computed using OAD

and is given by:

Therefore, the required space for turning is a ring with a

width R, which is a function of the vehicles geometry.

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The space require R can be calculated based on the
steer angle by substituting Rmin

Substituting the above values of Rmin in R relation, we

can get R in terms of inner and outer steer angle.

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7.3 Fundamental Principles in Designing Steering
System
The basic design of vehicle steering systems has
changed little since the invention of the steering
mechanism (1816). In general, drivers steering input is
transmitted by a shaft through some type of gear
reduction mechanism to generate steering motion at the
front wheels.
3.1 Trapezoidal Steering Mechanisms
A trapezoidal steering mechanism is a symmetric four-bar
linkage, as shown in figure below.

This kind of mechanism has two characteristic

parameters: angle and offset arm length d.
A steered position of the trapezoidal mechanism is shown
in figure below with inner and outer steer angles.

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The functionality of a trapezoidal steering mechanism,
compared to the associated Ackerman condition, is
shown in the following figure.

Rear-Wheel-Steering:
Rear-wheel-steering is used where high maneuverability
is a necessity on a low speed vehicle, such as _________
Rear-wheel-steering is not used on street vehicles
because it is unstable at high speeds.

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7.4 Steering Mechanisms and Their Components
A typical automobile steering mechanism is shown in the
following figure.

Steer Wheel

Directing
Shaft

Pinion

Rack

Drag Link

7.4.1 Parallelogram Steering Mechanism

A sample parallelogram steering mechanism and its
components are shown in the following figure.
This mechanism is commonly used on independent front-
wheel vehicles. There are many varieties available.

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7.4.2 Rack-and-pinion Steering
Rack-and-pinion is the most common steering system of
passenger cars.

Drivers rotary steering command s is transformed by a

steering box to translation uR of the racks, and then by the
drag links to the wheel steering.
7.4.3 Lever Arm Steering System
Following figure illustrates a steering linkage that
sometimes is called a lever arm steering system.
+ Large steering angles at the wheels are possible.
It is used on trucks with large wheel bases and
independent wheel suspension at the front axle.

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7.4.4 Drag Link Steering System
It is sometimes better to send the steering command to
only one wheel and connect the other one to the first
wheel by a drag link, as shown in the following figure.

Such steering linkages are usually used for trucks and

buses with a front solid axle.
Following figure shows another possibility of connecting a
steering mechanism to the Pitman arm of the left wheel
and using a trapezoidal linkage to connect the rght wheel
to the left wheel.

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7.4.5 Multi-link Steering System
In buses and big trucks, the driver may sit more than 2
meters in front of the front axle. These vehicles need
large steering angles at the front wheels to achieve good
maneuverability. In such applications, a multi-link steering
mechanism is requires and is shown in the following
figure.

The rotations of the steering wheel are transformed by the

steering box to a steering lever arm. The lever arm is
connected to a distributing linkage, which turns the left
and right wheels by a long tire rod.

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83
7.5 Steady State Turning
- During steady-state turning, depending upon the speed
of the vehicle, a vehicle can go through these three
phenomena:
Understeer
Neutral
Oversteer

Understeer
- Front lateral traction exceeds
- Vehicle slides straight
- Most production vehicles are
understeer
Oversteer
- Rear lateral traction exceeds
- Vehicle enters a spin
- Completely unstable above
critical speed

How to determine, if a vehicle will be neutral, understeer

or oversteer?

Curvature Response

Stability Factor

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 Curvature Response

- Curvature response is a decreasing function fo velocity vx

For K > 0

S5

S1 S3
S2 S4

vx1> vx2> vx3 > vx4 > vc

For K < 0

S1

S2

S3
S4
S5

vx1> vx2> vx3 > vx4 > vc

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Problem 3: A car has following characteristics:

Compute the stability factor K and curvature response

S. Explain, if car will understeer, or oversteer depending
upon the increasing velocity. Plot a curve of S with
respect to the velocity. What is an approximate value of
the critical velocity, i.e. after which car will under or over
steer?

Problem 3: Now assume the same car with a filled trunk

and which changes the cars characteristics to a new set
as given below:

Compute the stability factor K and curvature response

S. Explain, if car will understeer, or oversteer
depending upon the increasing velocity. Plot a curve of
S
with respect to the velocity. What is an approximate
value of the critical velocity, i.e. after which car will under
or over steer?

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 1. Introduction to Automobile Dynamics

- Vehicle coordinate frame

B(Cxyz) is attached to the vehicle
at the mass centre C.

- x-axis is a longitudinal axis

passing through C and directed
forward.
- y-axis goes laterally to the left
from the drivers viewpoint.
- z-axis makes the coordinate a
right hand triad.
- Vehicle orientation can be
described by using three angles
Roll angle ()
Pitch angle ()
Yaw angle () 87
As vehicle orientation Rolling Rate
changes with time, we Pitch Rate
express these angles in the
Yaw Rate
form of rate equations

- The resultant of external forces and moments acting

on the vehicle from ground and environment is termed
as vehicle force system.

Where B represents body coord-inate system

- The position and orientation of the vehicle in current

time increment is obtained by comparing the vehicle
coordinate Frame B (Cxyz) with global coordinate frame
G(OXYZ).

- Angle between x and X axes is the yaw angle.

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 2. Vehicle Planar Dynamics

- Velocity vector v makes an angle of with the

body x-axis termed as sideslip angle
- The total angle of velocity vector is + with the
global X-axis. This angle is called cruise angle.

- Numbering of wheel shown in the figure

- Each wheels position in B(Cxyz) is given by:

89
- Lets assume a six-wheel passenger car.
- Assume, the global position vector of the cars
mass centre is given by:

Write down the global position vectors of the wheels?

90
- The body position vectors of the wheels are straight forward

- Rotation matrix of vehicle coordinate frame B(Cxyz)

is given by

91
- Global position of the wheel 1 can be obtained
using

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 2. Vehicle Planar Dynamics

Newton-Euler Equations of Motion

- Vehicle is assumed to be rigid.
- Vehicle has only a planar motion.
- However, 3 DOF present, translation in the x and y
directions, and a rotation about z-axis.
- Newton-Euler equations of motion in body coordinate
system B are:

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Force System on a Rigid Vehicle through Tire Forces

- Force system at the tireprint of a wheel is defined

- Tire force system is transformed and applied on the
body of the vehicle
- Lets assume wheel number 1 of a vehicle.
- Components of force system in xy-plane, because of
forces generated at the tireprint are:

- Therefore, total
planar force system
is given by:

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- Equations of motion of the two-wheel model can
be derived using:

- This model can be expressed by five differential

equations of:

- Vehicle received the steering angle as an

input to generate tire forces which ultimately
gives five outputs

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