Roboticsis theinterdisciplinarybranch

ofengineeringandsciencethat includesmechanical
engineering,electrical engineering,computer
science,andothers.Roboticsdealswiththedesign,
construction,operation,anduseofrobots.
Arobotis amachine especially one programmable
by acomputer capable of carrying out a complex
series of actions automatically. Robots can be
guidedbyanexternalcontroldeviceorthecontrol
maybeembeddedwithin.
Manipulator consists of joints and links
Joints provide relative motion
Links are rigid members between joints
Various joint types: linear and rotary
Each joint provides a degree-of-freedom

Most robots possess five or six degrees-of-freedom

Robot manipulator consists of two sections:

Body-and-arm for positioning of objects in the robot's work volume
Wrist assembly for orientation of object
 Robotics Terminology

DOF degrees-of-freedom:Thesmallest
numberofreal-valuedcoordinatesneededto
representarobotsconfigurationisitsdegrees
of freedom (dof)
 Robotics Terminology

Position: Thetranslational(straight-line)locationofsomething.
Orientation: Therotational(angle)locationofsomething.A
robotsorientationismeasuredbyroll,pitch,andyaw angles.
Link: Arigidpieceofmaterialconnectingjointsinarobot.
Joint: Thedevicewhichallowsrelativemotionbetweentwo
linksinarobot.
Kinematics: Thestudyofmotionwithoutregardtoforces.
Dynamics: Thestudyofmotionwithregardtoforces.
Actuator: Providesforceforrobotmotion.
Sensor: Readsvariablesinrobotmotionforuseincontrol.
 Manipulator Joints

Prismatic Joint:Linear,Norotationinvolved.
(Hydraulicorpneumaticcylinder)
Revolute Joint:Rotary,(electricallydrivenwith
steppermotor)
 Wrist Configurations

Wristassemblyisattachedtoend-of-arm
Endeffectorisattachedtowristassembly
Functionofwristassemblyistoorientendeffector
Body-and-armdeterminesglobalpositionofendeffector
Twoorthreedegreesoffreedom:
Roll,Pitch,Yaw.Notation:RRR
 Robot Control Systems

Playback with Point-to-Point Control

Playbackcontrolusesacontrollerwithmemoryto
recordmotionsequencesinaworkcycle,aswellas
associated locations and other parameters, and
then plays back the work cycle during program
execution. Point-to-point control means individual
robotpositionsarerecordedinthememory.These
positions include both mechanical stops for each
joint,andthesetofvaluesthatrepresentlocations
intherangeofeachjoint.Feedbackcontrolisused
to confirm that the individual joints achieve the
specifiedlocationsintheprogram.
 Playback with Continuous Path Control
Continuouspathcontrolreferstoacontrolsystem
capable of continuous simultaneous control of
twoormoreaxes.Thefollowingadvantagesare
notedwiththistypeofplaybackcontrol:greater
storage capacitythe number of locations that
can be stored is greater than in point-to-point;
and interpolation calculations may be used,
especiallylinearandcircularinterpolations.
 Intelligent Control
Anintelligentrobotexhibitsbehaviorthatmakesitseems
to be intelligent. For example, it may have capacity to
interact with its ambient surroundings; decision-making
capability;abilitytocommunicatewithhumans;abilityto
carry out computational analysis during the work cycle;
and responsiveness to advancedsensor inputs. They may
also possess the playback facilities. However it requiresa
high level of computer control, and an advanced
programminglanguagetoinputthedecision-makinglogic
andotherintelligence'intothememory.
 End Effectors

Thespecialtoolingforarobotthatenablesit
toperformaspecifictask
Twotypes:
Gripperstograspandmanipulateobjects
(e.g.,parts)duringworkcycle
Toolstoperformaprocess,e.g.,spot
welding,spraypainting
 ROBOT CLASSIFICATION

Robots with Cartesian

configurations consists of links
connected by linear joints (L). Gantry
robots are Cartesian robots (LLL).
A robot with 3 prismatic joints the
axes consistent with a Cartesian
coordinate system.
Commonly used for: pick and place
Cartesian Configuration:
work
assembly operations
handling machine tools
arc welding
Cylindrical Configuration:
Robots with cylindrical
configuration have one rotary ( R)
joint at the base and linear (L) joints
succeeded to connect the links.
A robot with 2 prismatic joints and a
rotary joint the axes consistent
with a cylindrical coordinate system.
Commonly used for: handling at die-
casting machines, assembly
operations, handling machine tools,
spot welding.
 Polar Configuration:
Polar robots have a work
space of spherical shape.
Generally, the arm is connected
to the base with a twisting (T)
joint and rotatory (R) and linear
(L) joints follow.
Applications: Material
handling, spot welding, machine
loading
Articulated Robots
A robot with at least 3 rotary
joints.
Commonly used for:
assembly operations
welding
weld sealing
spray painting, handling at
die casting or fettling
machines
SCARA Robot, SCARA
stands for Selectively
Compliant Assembly Robot
Arm
A robot with at least 2 parallel
rotary joints.
Commonly used for:
pick and place work
assembly operations
Applications:
Precision, high-speed, light
assembly
 Robot reach
Robot reach,alsoknownasthework envelopeorwork volume,is
thespaceofallpointsinthesurroundingspacethatcanbereached
bytherobotarm.
Determinedby
Physicalconfigurations
Size
Numberofaxes
Therobotmountedposition(overheadgantry,wallmounted,floor
mounted,ontracks)
Limitsofarmandjointconfigurations
Theadditionofanend-effectorcanmoveoroffsettheentire
workvolume.
ForaCartesian
configurationthereachisa
rectangular-typespace.

Foracylindrical
configurationthereachisa
hollowcylindricalspace.

Forapolarconfigurationthe
reachispartofahollow
sphericalshape.

Robotreachforajointed-
armconfigurationdoesnot
haveaspecificshape.
 Robot Application

Machineloading,
Pickandplaceoperations,
Welding,
Painting,
Sampling,
Assemblyoperation,
Manufacturing
Surveillance,
Medicalapplications,
assistingdisabledindividuals,
Hazardousenvironments,
Underwater,
space,
and
remotelocations.
 Advantages VS Disadvantages of Robots

Robotsincreaseproductivity,safety,efficiency,quality,andconsistencyof
products.
Robotscanworkinhazardousenvironmentswithouttheneed.
Robotsneednoenvironmentalcomfort.
Robotsworkcontinuouslywithoutexperiencingfatigueofproblem.
Robotshaverepeatableprecisionatalltimes.
Robotscanbemuchmoreaccuratethanhuman.
Robotsreplacehumanworkerscreatingeconomicproblems.
Robotscanprocessmultiplestimuliortaskssimultaneously.
Robotslackcapabilitytorespondinemergencies.
Robots,althoughsuperiorincertainsenses,havelimitedcapabilitiesin
Degreeoffreedom,Dexterity,Sensors,Visionsystem,realtimeresponse.
Robotsarecostly,duetoInitialcostofequipment,Installationcosts,Need
forPeripherals,Needfortraining,Needforprogramming.
 ROBOTCHARACTERISTICS

Payload Payloadistheweightarobotcancarry
Reach Reachisthemaximumdistancearobotcanreachwithinitswork
envelope.
Speed of movement: Theamountofdistanceperunittimeatwhichtherobot
canmove.Speedoftheendeffectors.Determinedbytheweightoftheobject.
Spatial Resolution:Smallest increment of motion at the wrist end that can be
controlled by the robot.Dependsonthepositioncontrolsystem,feedback
measurement,andmechanicalaccuracy.
Accuracy
Theabilityofarobottogotothespecifiedpositionwithoutmakingamistake.
Itisimpossibletopositionamachineexactly.
Accuracyisthereforedefinedastheabilityoftherobottopositionitselftothedesired
locationwiththeminimalerror(usually25mm).
Repeatability
Theabilityofarobottorepeatedlypositionitselfwhen askedtoperformatask
multipletimes.
Accuracyisanabsoluteconcept,repeatabilityisrelative.
Arobotthatisrepeatablemaynotbeveryaccurate,visa versa.
Perhapsthemostfundamentalquestiononecanaskaboutarobotis,where
isit?(Inthesenseofwherethelinksoftherobotaresituated.)

The answer is the robots configuration: a specification of the positions of all points of
therobot.Sincetherobotslinksarerigidandofknownshape,onlyafewnumbersareneeded
torepresenttherobotsconfiguration.

Forexample,theconfigurationofadoorcanberepresentedbyasinglenumber,theanglethat
thedoorrotatesaboutitshinge.
Theconfigurationofapointlyingonaplanecanbedescribedbytwocoordinates,(x,y).The
configurationofacoinlyingheadsuponaflattablecanbedescribedbythreecoordinates:two
coordinates(x,y)thatspecifythelocationofaparticularpointonthecoin,andonecoordinate
thatspecifiesthecoinsorientation.
Thesmallestnumberofreal-valuedcoordinatesneededtorepresentarobotsconfigurationis
itsdegrees of freedom (dof).
In the example above, the door (regarded as a robot) has one degree of freedom.Thecoin
lyingheadsuponatablehasthreedegreesoffreedom.

arigidbodymovinginthree-dimensionalspace,whichwecallaspatial rigid body, has six

degrees of freedom. Similarly, arigidbodymovinginatwo-dimensionalplane,whichwe
henceforthcallaplanar rigid body, has three degrees of freedom.
Robot Joints
Grublers Formula

Consider a mechanism consisting of N links, where ground is also regarded as a link.

Let J be the number of joints,

m be the number of degrees of freedom of a rigid body (m = 3 for planar mechanisms and m = 6
for spatial mechanisms),

fi be the number of freedoms provided by joint i,

and ci be the number of constraints provided by joint i

(it follows that fi + ci = m for all i).

Then Grublers formula for the degrees of freedom (dof) of the robot is
Theplanarfour-barlinkageshowninFigure2.4(a)consistsoffourlinks(oneofthemground)
arrangedinasingleclosedloopandconnectedbyfourrevolutejoints.Sinceallthelinksare
confinedtomoveinthesameplane,m = 3. SubsitutingN = 4, J = 4, and fi = 1, i = 1, . . . , 4, into
Grublers formula, we seethatthefour-barlinkagehasonedegreeoffreedom.

Theslider-crankclosed-chainmechanismofFigure2.4(b)canbeanalyzedin
twoways:(i)themechanismconsistsofthreerevolutejointsandoneprismaticjoint(J = 4, and
each fi = 1) and four links (N = 4, including the ground link),
TheplanarmechanismillustratedinFigure2.6has
threelinksthatmeetatasinglepointontheright
ofthelargelink.Recallingthatajointbydefinition
connectsexactlytwolinks,thejointatthispointof
intersectionshouldnotberegardedasasingle
revolutejoint.Rather,itiscorrectlyinterpretedas
tworevolutejointsoverlappingeachother.Again,
thereismorethanonewaytoderivethenumber
ofdegreesoffreedomofthismechanismusing
Grublersformula:
(i)Themechanismconsistsofeightlinks(N = 8),
eight revolute joints, andoneprismaticjoint.
SubstitutingintoGrublersformula,
 Introduction Robot Drive Systems
The actions of the individual joints must be controlled in order for the
manipulatortoperformadesiredmoveitsbody,arm,motionandwrist.This
isprovidedbythedrivesystemofrobot.Thejointsaremovedbyactuators
poweredbyaparticularformofdrivesystem.Commondrivesystemsused
inroboticsareelectricdrive,hydraulicdrive,andpneumaticdrive.

TypesofActuators
*Electric Motors,like: Servomotors,SteppermotorsorDirect-driveelectric
motors
*Hydraulicactuators
*Pneumaticactuators

Thedrivesystemdeterminesthespeedofthearmmovement,thestrengthof
the robot, dynamic performance, and, to some extent, the kinds of
application.
 Electric Drive System:
high powerorspeed
perfectforsmall robotsandprecise
applications.
gotgreateraccuracyandrepeatability

costlier
 Hydraulic Drive System:

largesized robots
highpowerorspeedthantheelectricdrive

leakageofhydraulicoilsisconsideredasthe
majordisadvantage
 Pneumatic Drive System
small type robots
priceofthissystemislesswhencomparedto
thehydraulicdrive
willnotbeaperfectselectionforthefaster
operations
 Electrical Actuators

anyelectricalmotorcanbeutilizedasservo
motor
areclassifiedintoACandDCservomotors
 Synchronous-type AC servo motor

Theinduction-type AC servo motor

 Difference between the DC and AC Servo Motors

DC SERVO MOTOR AC SERVO MOTOR

It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W

It has more stability problems It has less stable problems

frequent maintenance due to commutator less maintenance due to the absence of commutator

It provides high efficiency The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is about 5 to 20%

The life of DC servo motor depends on the life on brush The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing life
life

These motors are used for high power applications These motors are used for low power applications
 The DC Stepper Motor

convertapulseddigitalinputsignalintoadiscrete
(incremental)mechanicalmovement
isatypeofsynchronousbrushlessmotor
arotormadeupofmany,sometypeshavehundreds
ofpermanentmagneticteethandastatorwith
individualwindings
letsassumethatasteppermotorcompletesonefull
revolution(360oinexactly100steps.Thenthestep
angleforthemotorisgivenas360degrees/100
steps=3.6degreesperstep.Thisvalueiscommonly
knownasthesteppermotorsStepAngle
 Therearethreebasictypesofsteppermotor,Variable
Reluctance,PermanentMagnetand
Hybrid(asortofcombinationofboth).
wellsuitedtoapplicationsthatrequire
accuratepositioningandrepeatabilitywithafast
responsetostarting,stopping,reversingandspeed
control
andanotherkeyfeatureofthesteppermotor,isits
abilitytoholdtheloadsteadyoncetherequire
positionisachieved.
Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors
3 Differences between Stepper Motor and Servo Motor:

StepperMotorshavealargenumberofpoles,magnetic
pairsgeneratedbyapermanentmagnetoranelectric
current.Servomotorshaveveryfewpoles;eachpole
offersanaturalsteppingpointforthemotorshaft.
Thetorqueofasteppermotoratlowspeedsisgreater
thanaservomotorofthesamesize.
Steppermotoroperationissynchronizedbycommand
pulsesignalsoutputfromthepulsegenerator.In
contrast,servomotoroperationlagsbehindthe
commandpulses.
 Grippers

deviceattheendofaroboticarm,designedtointeractwiththeenvironment
fourgeneralcategoriesofrobotgrippers,theseare:

1.Impactivejawsorclawswhichphysicallygraspbydirectimpactuponthe
object.

2.Ingressivepins,needlesorhackleswhichphysicallypenetratethesurfaceof
theobject(usedintextile,carbonandglassfibrehandling).

3.Astrictivesuction[vague]forcesappliedtotheobjectssurface(whetherby
vacuum,magneto-orelectroadhesion).

4.Contigutiverequiringdirectcontactforadhesiontotakeplace(suchasglue,
surfacetensionorfreezing).
 Twomaintypesofactionareperformedby
grippers:
 Magnetic Grippers

forgraspingtheferrous materials
Themagneticgripperscanbeclassifiedintotwo common types,
namely:Magneticgripperswith
Electromagnets
Permanentmagnets,Afterthisgrippergraspsawork
part,anadditionaldevicecalledasstripper pushoff pinwillbe
requiredtoseparatetheworkpartfromthemagnet.Thisdevice
isincorporatedatthesidesofthegripper.Theadvantageofthis
permanentmagnetgripperisthatitcanbeusedinhazardous
applicationslikeexplosion-proof apparatusbecauseofno
electricalcircuit.Moreover,thereisnopossibilityofspark
productionaswell.
 Benefits:Thisgripperonlyrequiresone surfacetograspthematerials.
Thegraspingofmaterialsisdonevery quickly.
Itdoesnotrequireseparate designsforhandlingdifferent
sizeofmaterials.
Itiscapableofgraspingmaterialswithholes,whichis
unfeasibleinthevacuumgrippers.
Drawbacks:Thegrippedworkparthasthechanceofslipping outwhen
itismovingquickly.
Sometimesoilinthesurfacecanreducethestrengthofthe
gripper.
Themachining chipsmaysticktothegripperduringunloading.
 Mechanical Gripper

forgraspingtheobjectswithitsmechanically
operatedfingers.
Inamechanicalgripper,theholdingofan
objectcanbedonebytwo different
methodssuchas:
Usingthefingerpadsasliketheshape
oftheworkpart.
Usingsoftmaterialfingerpads.
A pneumatic gripper
Types of Pneumatic Grippers
Major Factors in Choosing a Pneumatic Gripper and Jaw Design:

1.Partshape,orientationanddimensionalvariation
2.PartWeight

3.Accessibility
4.Environmental

5.RetentionoftheObject
Whenairpressureislost,thegripperwillrelaxitsgripon
theobjectandtheobjectmaybedropped.Thereare
springassistgrippersdesignedforthistypeapplication.
Hydraulic Grippers
 Vacuumgrippersaredesignedtoattachtoflatsurfaces
bycreatingavacuumandtoremainattachedtothose
surfacesaslongasthevacuumexists.
Vacuumgrippersareusedtohandleobjectswithplanar
surfaces,suchasmetalplatesandcardboardboxes.
Generally,eachvacuumgripperincludesanumberof
suctioncups,eachofwhichisconnectedtoanair
pressurepump.Toreducetheriskofmalfunctiondue
tolossofvacuum,itisacommonpracticetousemore
thanonepressuresuctioncup.
Two-fingered gripper
Three-fingered gripper
 Selection and design considerations in robot gripper

abilitytoreachthesurfaceofaworkpart.
Thechangeinworkpartsize
distortandscratchinthefragileworkparts.
mustholdthelarger areaofaworkpartif
ithasvariousdimensions,whichwillcertainly
increasestabilityandcontrolinpositioning.
Thereplaceable fingerscanalsobe
employedforholdingdifferentworkpartsizes
 Thefollowing significant factorsmustbeconsideredto
determinethenecessarygrippingforce.
Considerationmustbetakentotheweightofawork
part.
Itmustbecapableofgraspingtheworkparts
constantlyatitscentre of mass.
Thespeedofrobotarmmovementandtheconnection
betweenthedirectionofmovementandgripper
positionontheworkpartshouldbeconsidered.
Itmustdetermineeitherfrictionorphysical
constrictionhelpstogriptheworkpart.
Itmustconsidertheco-efficient of frictionbetweenthe
gripperandworkpart.
 Sensorsaredevicesthatareusedtomeasure
physicalvariablesliketemperature,pH,
velocity,rotationalrate,flowrate,pressure
andmanyothers.
 Sensors used in Robotics

Proximity Sensor
capableofpointingouttheavailabilityofa
component
 Range Sensor:

RangeSensorisimplementedintheend
effectorofarobottocalculatethedistance
betweenthesensorandaworkpart.
Ultrasonic Distance Sensor

Distance = Time x Speed of Sound divided by 2.

 Tactile Sensors:

Asensingdevicethatspecifiesthecontact
betweenanobject,andsensorisconsidered
astheTactile Sensor.
Thissensorcanbesortedintotwokeytypes
namely:
TouchSensor,
and
ForceSensor.
TouchSensor
 The force sensor
StrainGaugeForceSensors

simplematerialstheory.Thecalculated
deformationismultipliedbytheYoung's
Modulusforacrosssectionalareaofthe
material(whicharebothconstants)to
calculatetheforce
 Compliance Sensor

In industrial robotics, the term compliance refers to flexibility and

suppleness. To define what compliance is, the definition of non-
complianceisuseful.Anon-compliant(stiff)robotendeffectorisa
device which is designed to have predetermined positions or
trajectories. No matter what kind of external force is exerted the
roboticendeffectorwillfollowtheexactsamepatheachandevery
time.Ontheotherhand,acompliantendeffectorcanreachseveral
positions and exert different forces on a given object. To make
thingsclearer:a compliantrobot gripper cangrasp anegg without
crushing it with the proper settings. A non-compliant gripper will
crush the egg and continue its given operation. Compliance aims
towards either process improvement (active) or human safety
(passive).
 Slip sensing

Humanscangraspanobjectwithout
informationsuchasacoefficientoffrictionor
weight.Toimplementthisgraspingmotion
withtherobothand,sensorshavebeen
proposedthatdetectanincipientslipwithin
thecontactsurfaceorstick-slip.

Edgedetectionisanimageprocessingtechniqueforfindingtheboundariesofobjectswithin
images.Itworksbydetectingdiscontinuitiesinbrightness.Edgedetectionisusedforimage
segmentationanddataextractioninareassuchasimageprocessing,computervision,and
machinevision.

Inanimage,anedgeisacurvethatfollowsapathofrapidchangeinimageintensity.Edgesare
oftenassociatedwiththeboundariesofobjectsinascene.Edgedetectionisusedtoidentifythe
edgesinanimage.

Tofindedges,youcanusetheedgefunction.Thisfunctionlooksforplacesintheimagewhere
theintensitychangesrapidly,usingoneofthesetwocriteria:

Placeswherethefirstderivativeoftheintensityislargerinmagnitudethansomethreshold
Placeswherethesecondderivativeoftheintensityhasazerocrossing
edgeprovidesseveralderivativeestimators,eachofwhichimplementsoneofthesedefinitions.
Forsomeoftheseestimators,youcanspecifywhethertheoperationshouldbesensitiveto
horizontaledges,verticaledges,orboth.edgereturnsabinaryimagecontaining1'swhereedges
arefoundand0'selsewhere.

Themostpowerfuledge-detectionmethodthatedgeprovidesistheCannymethod.TheCanny
methoddiffersfromtheotheredge-detectionmethodsinthatitusestwodifferentthresholds(to
detectstrongandweakedges),andincludestheweakedgesintheoutputonlyiftheyare
connectedtostrongedges.Thismethodisthereforelesslikelythantheotherstobefooledby
noise,andmorelikelytodetecttrueweakedges.
Description of a position
Onceacoordinatesystemisestablished,wecanlocateanypointintheuniversewith
a3x1positionvector.

Rotation with respect to the current frame
Example2.6
Supposethattheaboverotationsareperformedinthereverseorder,thatis,
firstarotationaboutthecurrentz-axisfollowedbyarotationaboutthecurrent
Rotation with respect to the fixed frame
Description of an orientation
Description of a frame
Aframeisacoordinatesystemwhere,inadditiontotheorientation,wegivea
positionvectorwhichlocatesitsoriginrelativetosomeotherembeddingframe.For
example,frame
The4x4matrixin(2.19)iscalled
ahomogeneous transform.
Inverting a transform
Kinematics is the science of motion that treats the subject without
regard to the forces that cause it. Within the science of kinematics, one
studies the position, the velocity, the acceleration, and all higher order
derivatives of the position variables (with respect to time or any other
variable(s)). Hence, the study of the kinematics of manipulators refers to
all the geometrical and time-based properties of the motion.
Derivation of link transformations
InverseKinematics
GeometricSolutionApproach
Adept Robot Inverse Kinematics
VELOCITYKINEMATICSTHEMANIPULATORJACOBIAN

SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRICES

wewillderivepropertiesofrotationmatricesthatcanbeused
tocomputerelativevelocitytransformationsbetweencoordinateframes.Such
transformationsinvolvederivativesofrotationmatrices.
FORWARD KINEMATICS: THE DENAVIT-HARTENBERG CONVENTION