ElectromagneticRadiationPrinciples

ElectromagneticRadiationPrinciples

Dr.JohnR.Jensen
Dr.JohnR.Jensen
DepartmentofGeography
DepartmentofGeography
UniversityofSouthCarolina
UniversityofSouthCarolina
Columbia,SC29208
Columbia,SC29208

Jensen,J.R.,2005,RemoteSensingof
Jensen,J.R.,2005, RemoteSensingof
Environment:AnEarthResourcePerspective
Environment:AnEarthResourcePerspective ,,
UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall,Inc.,2
UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall,Inc.,2nd
nd

Edition,
Edition,inpress
inpress. .
 ElectromagneticEnergyInteractions
ElectromagneticEnergyInteractions

Energy
Energyrecordedbyremotesensingsystemsundergoesfundamental
recordedbyremotesensingsystemsundergoesfundamental
interactionsthatshouldbeunderstoodtoproperlyinterprettheremotely
interactionsthatshouldbeunderstoodtoproperlyinterprettheremotely
senseddata.Forexample,iftheenergybeingremotelysensedcomes
senseddata.Forexample,iftheenergybeingremotelysensedcomes
fromtheSun,theenergy:
fromtheSun,theenergy:
isradiatedbyatomicparticlesatthesource(theSun),
isradiatedbyatomicparticlesatthesource(theSun),
propagatesthroughthevacuumofspaceatthespeedoflight,
propagatesthroughthevacuumofspaceatthespeedoflight,
interactswiththeEarth'satmosphere,
interactswiththeEarth'satmosphere,
interactswiththeEarth'ssurface,
interactswiththeEarth'ssurface,
interactswiththeEarth'satmosphereonceagain,and
interactswiththeEarth'satmosphereonceagain,and
finallyreachestheremotesensorwhereitinteractswithvarious
finallyreachestheremotesensorwhereitinteractswithvarious

opticalsystems,filters,emulsions,ordetectors.
opticalsystems,filters,emulsions,ordetectors.
 SolarandHeliosphericObservatory(SOHO)
SolarandHeliosphericObservatory(SOHO)
ImageoftheSunObtainedonSeptember14,1999
ImageoftheSunObtainedonSeptember14,1999
 Energymatter
Energymatter
interactionsinthe
interactionsinthe
atmosphere,atthe
atmosphere,atthe
studyarea,andat
studyarea,andat
theremotesensor
theremotesensor
detector
detector
 HowisEnergyTransferred?
HowisEnergyTransferred?

Energy
Energymaymaybebetransferred
transferredthree
threeways:
ways:conduction,
conduction,convection,
convection,and
andradiation.
radiation.a)a)Energy
Energy
may
maybe beconducted
conducteddirectly
directlyfrom
fromone
oneobject
objecttotoanother
anotherasaswhen
whenaapan
panisisinindirect
directphysical
physical
contact
contactwith
withaahot
hotburner.
burner.b)b)The
TheSun
Sunbathes
bathesthe
theEarths
Earthssurface
surfacewith
withradiant
radiantenergy
energy
causing
causingthe
theair
airnear
nearthe
theground
groundtotoincrease
increaseinintemperature.
temperature.The
Theless
lessdense
denseair airrises,
rises,
creating
creatingconvectional
Jensen2005
Jensen2005 convectionalcurrents
currentsininthe
theatmosphere.
atmosphere.c)c)Electromagnetic
Electromagneticenergy
energyininthe theform
form
ofofelectromagnetic
electromagneticwaves
wavesmaymaybebetransmitted
transmittedthrough
throughthe
thevacuum
vacuumof ofspace
spacefromfromthetheSun
Sun
totothe
theEarth.
Earth.
 ElectromagneticRadiationModels
ElectromagneticRadiationModels
To
Tounderstand
understandhowhowelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiationisiscreated,
created,
how
howititpropagates
propagatesthrough
throughspace,
space,and
andhow
howititinteracts
interacts
with
withother
othermatter,
matter,ititisisuseful
usefulto
todescribe
describethe
theprocesses
processes
using
usingtwo
twodifferent
differentmodels:
models:

the
thewave
wavemodel,
model,and
and
the
theparticle
particlemodel.
model.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 WaveModelofElectromagneticRadiation
WaveModelofElectromagneticRadiation
In
Inthe
the1860s,
1860s,James
JamesClerkClerkMaxwell
Maxwell(18311879)
(18311879)conceptualized
conceptualizedelectromagnetic
electromagnetic
radiation
radiation(EMR)
(EMR)as asananelectromagnetic
electromagneticwave wavethat
thattravels
travelsthrough
throughspace
spaceatatthe
thespeed
speedof
of
light,
light,cc, ,which
whichisis33xx10 108meters
8
metersper
persecond
second(hereafter
(hereafterreferred
referredtotoas
asmmss -1))or
-1
or
186,282.03
186,282.03milesmilesss-1. .AAuseful
-1
usefulrelation
relationfor
forquick
quickcalculations
calculationsisisthat
thatlight
lighttravels
travelsabout
about
11ftftper
pernanosecond
nanosecond(10 (10-9s).
-9
s).The
Theelectromagnetic
electromagneticwavewaveconsists
consistsof oftwo
twofluctuating
fluctuating
fieldsone
fieldsoneelectric
electricandandthe theother
othermagnetic
magnetic. .The
Thetwo
twovectors
vectorsare
areatatright
rightangles
angles
(orthogonal)
(orthogonal)totooneoneanother,
another,and andboth
bothare
areperpendicular
perpendiculartotothe
thedirection
directionof oftravel.
travel.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 TheWaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy
TheWaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Electromagneticradiationisgeneratedwhenanelectricalchargeis
Electromagneticradiation
Electromagneticradiationisgeneratedwhenanelectricalchargeis
Electromagneticradiation
accelerated.
accelerated.

Thewavelengthofelectromagneticradiation()dependsuponthelength
Thewavelengthofelectromagneticradiation()dependsuponthelength
oftimethatthechargedparticleisacceleratedanditsfrequency(v)depends
oftimethatthechargedparticleisacceleratedanditsfrequency(v)depends
onthenumberofaccelerationspersecond.
onthenumberofaccelerationspersecond.

Wavelengthisformallydefinedasthemeandistancebetweenmaximums
Wavelengthisformallydefinedasthemeandistancebetweenmaximums
(orminimums)ofaroughlyperiodicpatternandisnormallymeasuredin
(orminimums)ofaroughlyperiodicpatternandisnormallymeasuredin
micrometers(m)ornanometers(nm).
micrometers(m)ornanometers(nm).

Frequencyisthenumberofwavelengthsthatpassapointperunittime.A
Frequencyisthenumberofwavelengthsthatpassapointperunittime.A
wavethatsendsonecrestbyeverysecond(completingonecycle)issaidto
wavethatsendsonecrestbyeverysecond(completingonecycle)issaidto
haveafrequencyofonecyclepersecondoronehertz,abbreviated1Hz.
haveafrequencyofonecyclepersecondoronehertz,abbreviated1Hz.
 WaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy
WaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Therelationshipbetweenthewavelength,,andfrequency,,of
Therelationshipbetweenthewavelength,,andfrequency,,of
electromagneticradiationisbasedonthefollowingformula,wherec
electromagneticradiationisbasedonthefollowingformula,wherec
isthespeedoflight:
isthespeedoflight:

cc vv
cc vv vv
cc
Notethatfrequency,isinverselyproportionaltowavelength,
Notethatfrequency,isinverselyproportionaltowavelength,
Thelongerthewavelength,thelowerthefrequency,andviceversa.
Thelongerthewavelength,thelowerthefrequency,andviceversa.
WaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy
WaveModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Thiscrosssectionofanelectromagnetic
Thiscrosssectionofanelectromagnetic
waveillustratestheinverserelationship
waveillustratestheinverserelationship
between wavelength(()and
betweenwavelength )andfrequency
frequency
(
().Thelongerthewavelengththe
).Thelongerthewavelengththe
lowerthefrequency;theshorterthe
lowerthefrequency;theshorterthe
wavelength,thehigherthefrequency.
wavelength,thehigherthefrequency.
Theamplitudeofanelectromagnetic
Theamplitudeofanelectromagnetic
waveistheheightofthewavecrest
waveistheheightofthewavecrest
abovetheundisturbedposition.
abovetheundisturbedposition.
Successivewavecrestsarenumbered1,
Successivewavecrestsarenumbered1,
2,3,and4.Anobserverattheposition
2,3,and4.Anobserverattheposition
oftheclockrecordsthenumberof
oftheclockrecordsthenumberof
creststhatpassbyinasecond.This
creststhatpassbyinasecond.This
frequencyismeasuredincyclesper
frequencyismeasuredincyclesper
second,orhertz
second,orhertz

Jensen,2005
Jensen,2005
TheelectromagneticenergyfromtheSuntravelsineightminutesacross
TheelectromagneticenergyfromtheSuntravelsineightminutesacross
theintervening93millionmiles(150millionkm)ofspacetotheEarth.
theintervening93millionmiles(150millionkm)ofspacetotheEarth.
TheSunproducesacontinuousspectrumofelectromagneticradiation
TheSunproducesacontinuousspectrumofelectromagneticradiation
rangingfromveryshort,extremelyhighfrequencygammaandcosmic
rangingfromveryshort,extremelyhighfrequencygammaandcosmic
wavestolong,verylowfrequencyradiowaves
wavestolong,verylowfrequencyradiowaves
TheEarthapproximatesa300K(27C)blackbodyandhasadominant
TheEarthapproximatesa300K(27C)blackbodyandhasadominant
wavelengthatapproximately9.7m.
wavelengthatapproximately9.7m.
 StephenBoltzmannLaw
StephenBoltzmannLaw

Usingthe
Usingthewavemodel
wavemodel,itispossibletocharacterizetheenergyoftheSun
,itispossibletocharacterizetheenergyoftheSun
whichrepresentstheinitialsourceofmostoftheelectromagneticenergy
whichrepresentstheinitialsourceofmostoftheelectromagneticenergy
recordedbyremotesensingsystems(exceptradar).Wemaythinkofthe
recordedbyremotesensingsystems(exceptradar).Wemaythinkofthe
Sunasa6,000K
Sunasa6,000Kblackbody
blackbody(atheoreticalconstructwhichradiatesenergy
(atheoreticalconstructwhichradiatesenergy
atthemaximumpossiblerateperunitareaateachwavelengthforany
atthemaximumpossiblerateperunitareaateachwavelengthforany
giventemperature).The
giventemperature).Thetotalemittedradiation
totalemittedradiation((M
M))fromablackbodyis
fromablackbodyis
proportionaltothefourthpowerofitsabsolutetemperature.Thisisknown
proportionaltothefourthpowerofitsabsolutetemperature.Thisisknown
asthe
astheStefanBoltzmannlaw
StefanBoltzmannlawandisexpressedas:
andisexpressedas:
M TT
44
M
whereistheStefanBoltzmannconstant,5.6697x10
where istheStefanBoltzmannconstant,5.6697x108Wm
Wm2K
K4..
8 2 4

Thus,theamountofenergyemittedbyanobjectsuchastheSunorthe
Thus,theamountofenergyemittedbyanobjectsuchastheSunorthe
Earthisafunctionofitstemperature.
Earthisafunctionofitstemperature.
 SourcesofElectromagneticEnergy
SourcesofElectromagneticEnergy

Jensen2005
Jensen2005

Thermonuclear
Thermonuclearfusionfusiontaking
takingplace
placeon
onthe
thesurface
surfaceof ofthe
theSun
Sunyields
yieldsaacontinuous
continuousspectrum
spectrumof of
electromagnetic
electromagneticenergy.
energy.The
The5770
57706000
6000kelvin
kelvin(K)(K)temperature
temperatureofofthis
thisprocess
processproduces
producesaalarge
large
amount
amountofofrelatively
relativelyshort
shortwavelength
wavelengthenergy
energythat
thattravels
travelsthrough
throughthethevacuum
vacuumof ofspace
spaceatatthe
thespeed
speed
ofoflight.
light.Some
Someofofthis
thisenergy
energyisisintercepted
interceptedbybythe
theEarth,
Earth,where
whereititinteracts
interactswith
withthe
theatmosphere
atmosphereand and
surface
surfacematerials.
materials.The
TheEarth
Earthreflects
reflectssome
someofofthe
theenergy
energydirectly
directlyback
backout
outtotospace
spaceororititmay
mayabsorb
absorb
the
theshort
shortwavelength
wavelengthenergy
energyand
andthen
thenre-emit
re-emitititatataalonger
longerwavelength
wavelength
 Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Spectrum

The
TheSunSunproduces
producesaa
continuous
continuousspectrum
spectrumof ofenergy
energy
from
fromgamma
gammarays
raystotoradio
radio
waves
wavesthatthatcontinually
continuallybathe
bathe
the
theEarth
Earthininenergy.
energy.The
The
visible
visibleportion
portionof
ofthe
thespectrum
spectrum
may
maybe bemeasured
measuredusing
using
wavelength
wavelength(measured
(measuredinin
micrometers
micrometersor ornanometers,
nanometers,
i.e.,mmor
i.e., ornm)
nm)ororelectron
electron
volts
volts(eV).
(eV).All
Allunits
unitsare
are
interchangeable.
interchangeable.
Jensen2005
Jensen2005
SpectralBandwidthsofLandsatandSPOTSensorSystems
SpectralBandwidthsofLandsatandSPOTSensorSystems

Jensen2005
Jensen
Jensen2005
Jensen
 WeinsDisplacementLaw
WeinsDisplacementLaw

In
Inaddition
additiontotocomputing
computingthe
thetotal
totalamount
amountofofenergy
energyexiting
exitingaatheoretical
theoreticalblackbody
blackbodysuch
such
as
as the
the Sun,
Sun, wewe can
can determine
determine its
its dominant
dominant wavelength
wavelength ( (max ) based on Wein's
max) based on Wein's
displacement
displacementlaw:
law:
kk
max
max
TT
where
where kk isis aa constant
constant equaling 2898 m
equaling 2898 m K,
K, and
and TT isis the
the absolute
absolute temperature
temperature inin kelvin.
kelvin.
Therefore,
Therefore,as asthe
theSun
Sunapproximates
approximatesaa6000
6000KKblackbody,
blackbody,its itsdominant
dominantwavelength
wavelength( (max )
max )
0.48m:
isis0.48 m:
2898
2898 m
m KK
483m
00..483 m
6000
6000 KK

whereistheStefanBoltzmannconstant,5.66697x10
where istheStefanBoltzmannconstant,5.66697x108Wm
Wm2K
K4..
8 2 4
 BlackbodyRadiationCurves
BlackbodyRadiationCurves

Blackbodyradiationcurvesforseveralobjects
Blackbodyradiationcurvesforseveralobjects
includingtheSunandtheEarthwhich
includingtheSunandtheEarthwhich
approximate6,000Kand300Kblackbodies,
approximate6,000Kand300Kblackbodies,
respectively.The
respectively. area
respectively.
respectively.The areaunder
undereach
eachcurve
curvemay
maybe be
summed
summedtotocompute
computethe thetotal
totalradiant
radiantenergy
energy
(M
(M))exiting
exitingeach
eachobject.
object.Thus,
Thus,the
theSun
Sunproduces
produces
more
moreradiant
radiantexitance
exitancethan
thanthe
theEarth
Earthbecause
becauseits its
temperature
temperatureisisgreater.
greater.As Asthe
thetemperature
temperatureof ofan
an
object
objectincreases,
increases,its
itsdominant
dominantwavelength
wavelength( (max )
max )
shifts
shiftstoward
towardthe
theshorter
shorterwavelengths
wavelengthsof ofthe
the
spectrum.
spectrum.
Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 RadiantIntensity
RadiantIntensity
oftheSun
oftheSun
TheSunapproximatesa6,000K
TheSunapproximatesa6,000K
blackbodywithadominant
blackbodywithadominant
wavelengthof0.48m(greenlight).
wavelengthof0.48 m(greenlight).
Earthapproximatesa300K
Earthapproximatesa300K
blackbodywithadominant
blackbodywithadominant
wavelengthof9.66m.The6,000
wavelengthof9.66 m.The6,000
KSunproduces41%ofitsenergyin
KSunproduces41%ofitsenergyin
thevisibleregionfrom0.40.7m
thevisibleregionfrom0.40.7 m
(blue,green,andredlight).Theother
(blue,green,andredlight).Theother
59%oftheenergyisinwavelengths
59%oftheenergyisinwavelengths
shorterthanbluelight(<0.4m)and
shorterthanbluelight(<0.4 m)and
longerthanredlight(>0.7m).Eyes
longerthanredlight(>0.7 m).Eyes
areonlysensitivetolightfromthe
areonlysensitivetolightfromthe
0.4to0.7m.Remotesensor
0.4to0.7 m.Remotesensor
detectorscanbemadesensitiveto
detectorscanbemadesensitiveto
energyinthenonvisibleregionsof
energyinthenonvisibleregionsof
thespectrum.
thespectrum.
Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Fora100yearsbefore1905,lightwasthoughtofasasmoothand
Fora100yearsbefore1905,lightwasthoughtofasasmoothand
continuouswaveasdiscussed.Then,
continuouswaveasdiscussed.Then,AlbertEinstein
AlbertEinstein(18791955)found
(18791955)found
thatwhenlightinteractswithelectrons,ithasadifferentcharacter.
thatwhenlightinteractswithelectrons,ithasadifferentcharacter.

Hefoundthatwhenlightinteractswithmatter,itbehavesasthoughitis
Hefoundthatwhenlightinteractswithmatter,itbehavesasthoughitis
composedofmanyindividualbodiescalled
composedofmanyindividualbodiescalledphotons
photons,whichcarrysuch
,whichcarrysuch
particlelikepropertiesasenergyandmomentum.Asaresult,most
particlelikepropertiesasenergyandmomentum.Asaresult,most
physiciststodaywouldanswerthequestion
physiciststodaywouldanswerthequestionWhatislight?
Whatislight?as
asLight
Lightisa
isa
particular
particularkindofmatter.
kindofmatter.

Thus,wesometimesdescribeelectromagneticenergyintermsofits
Thus,wesometimesdescribeelectromagneticenergyintermsofits
wavelikeproperties.But,whentheenergyinteractswithmatteritis
wavelikeproperties.But,whentheenergyinteractswithmatteritis
usefultodescribeitasdiscretepacketsofenergy,or
usefultodescribeitasdiscretepacketsofenergy,orquanta
quanta..
 QuantumTheoryofEMR
QuantumTheoryofEMR

Niels
NielsBohr
Bohr (18851962)
(18851962) andand Max
Max Planck
Planck recognized
recognized the
the discrete
discrete nature
nature of
of
exchanges
exchanges of of radiant
radiant energy
energy andand proposed
proposed the the quantum
quantum theorytheory ofof
electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation.
radiation. This
This theory
theory states
states that
that energy
energy isis transferred
transferred in
in
discrete
discrete packets
packets called
called quanta
quanta or
or photons,
photons, as
as discussed.
discussed. The
The relationship
relationship
between
between the
the frequency
frequency of of radiation
radiation expressed
expressed byby wave
wave theory
theory and
and the
the
quantum
quantumis:is:
Q hhvv
Q

where
where QQ isis the
the energy
energy ofof aa quantum
quantum measured
measured in
in joules,
joules, hh isis the
the Planck
Planck
constant (6.626 10
constant(6.626 10-34JJs), andisisthe
s),and thefrequency
frequencyof
ofthe
theradiation.
-34
radiation.
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Referringtothepreviousformulas,wecanmultiplytheequationby
Referringtothepreviousformulas,wecanmultiplytheequationbyh/h
h/h,or
,or
1,withoutchangingitsvalue:
1,withoutchangingitsvalue:
hhcc

hhvv
Bysubstituting forhh,wecanexpressthewavelengthassociatedwitha
BysubstitutingQQfor ,wecanexpressthewavelengthassociatedwitha
quantumofenergyas:
quantumofenergyas:

oror
hhcc hhcc

Q Q
Q
Q
Thus,theenergyofaquantumisinverselyproportionaltoitswavelength
Thus,theenergyofaquantumisinverselyproportionaltoitswavelength,,
i.e.,thelongerthewavelengthinvolved,theloweritsenergycontent.
i.e.,thelongerthewavelengthinvolved,theloweritsenergycontent.
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Electrons
Electronsarethetinynegativelychargedparticlesthatmovearoundthepositively
arethetinynegativelychargedparticlesthatmovearoundthepositively
chargednucleus
charged nucleusofanatom.Atomsofdifferentsubstancesaremadeupofvarying
ofanatom.Atomsofdifferentsubstancesaremadeupofvarying
numbersofelectronsarrangedindifferentways.Theinteractionbetweenthepositively
numbersofelectronsarrangedindifferentways.Theinteractionbetweenthepositively
chargednucleusandthenegativelychargedelectronkeeptheelectroninorbit.Whileits
chargednucleusandthenegativelychargedelectronkeeptheelectroninorbit.Whileits
orbitisnotexplicitlyfixed,eachelectron'smotionisrestrictedtoadefiniterangefrom
orbitisnotexplicitlyfixed,eachelectron'smotionisrestrictedtoadefiniterangefrom
thenucleus.Theallowableorbitalpathsofelectronsaboutanatommightbethoughtof
thenucleus.Theallowableorbitalpathsofelectronsaboutanatommightbethoughtof
as
asenergyclassesorlevels
energyclassesorlevels.Inorderforanelectrontoclimbtoahigherclass,workmust
.Inorderforanelectrontoclimbtoahigherclass,workmust
beperformed.However,unlessanamountofenergyisavailabletomovetheelectron
beperformed.However,unlessanamountofenergyisavailabletomovetheelectron
upatleastoneenergylevel,itwillacceptnowork.Ifasufficientamountofenergyis
upatleastoneenergylevel,itwillacceptnowork.Ifasufficientamountofenergyis
received,theelectronwilljumptoanewlevelandtheatomissaidtobeexcited
received,theelectronwilljumptoanewlevelandtheatomissaidtobe excited.Oncean
.Oncean
electronisinahigherorbit,itpossesses
electronisinahigherorbit,itpossessespotentialenergy
potentialenergy.Afterabout
.Afterabout10
108seconds
8
seconds,the
,the
electronfallsbacktotheatom'slowestemptyenergylevelororbitandgivesoff
electronfallsbacktotheatom'slowestemptyenergylevelororbitandgivesoff
radiation.
radiation.Thewavelengthofradiationgivenoffisafunctionoftheamountofworkdone
Thewavelengthofradiationgivenoffisafunctionoftheamountofworkdone
ontheatom
ontheatom,i.e.,the
,i.e.,thequantumofenergy
quantumofenergyitabsorbedtocausetheelectrontobemovedtoa
itabsorbedtocausetheelectrontobemovedtoa
higherorbit.
higherorbit.
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Matter
Mattercanbeheatedtosuchhightemperaturesthatelectronswhichnormally
canbeheatedtosuchhightemperaturesthatelectronswhichnormally
moveincapturednonradiatingorbitsarebrokenfree.Whenthishappens,the
moveincapturednonradiatingorbitsarebrokenfree.Whenthishappens,the
atomremainswithapositivechargeequaltothenegativelychargedelectron
atomremainswithapositivechargeequaltothenegativelychargedelectron
whichescaped.Theelectronbecomesa
whichescaped.Theelectronbecomesafreeelectron
freeelectronandtheatomiscalledan
andtheatomiscalledan
ion
ion.Intheultravioletandvisible(
.Intheultravioletandvisible(blue
blue,,green
green,and
,andred
red)partsofthe
)partsofthe
electromagneticspectrum,
electromagneticspectrum,radiation
radiationisproducedbychangesintheenergylevels
isproducedbychangesintheenergylevels
oftheouter,
oftheouter,valenceelectrons
valenceelectrons.Thewavelengthsofenergyproducedarea
.Thewavelengthsofenergyproducedarea
functionoftheparticularorbitallevelsoftheelectronsinvolvedintheexcitation
functionoftheparticularorbitallevelsoftheelectronsinvolvedintheexcitation
process.Iftheatomsabsorbenoughenergytobecome
process.Iftheatomsabsorbenoughenergytobecomeionized ionizedandifa
andifafree
free
electron
electrondropsinto
dropsintofillthevacantenergylevel
fillthevacantenergylevel,thentheradiationgivenoffis
,thentheradiationgivenoffis
unquantized andcontinuousspectrum
unquantizedand continuousspectrumisproducedratherthanabandoraseries
isproducedratherthanabandoraseries
ofbands.Everyencounterofoneofthefreeelectronswithapositivelycharged
ofbands.Everyencounterofoneofthefreeelectronswithapositivelycharged
nucleuscausesrapidlychangingelectricandmagneticfieldssothatradiationat
nucleuscausesrapidlychangingelectricandmagneticfieldssothatradiationat
allwavelengthsisproduced.Thehotsurfaceofthe
allwavelengthsisproduced.ThehotsurfaceoftheSun Sunislargelya
islargelyaplasma
plasmain
in
whichradiationofallwavelengthsisproduced.Thespectraofaplasmaisa
whichradiationofallwavelengthsisproduced.Thespectraofaplasmaisa
continuousspectrum
continuousspectrum..
 CreationofLight
CreationofLight
fromAtomic
fromAtomic
Particles
Particles
AAphoton
photonofofelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy energyisis
emitted
emittedwhen whenan anelectron
electronininan anatom
atomoror
molecule
moleculedrops dropsfrom
fromaahigher-energy
higher-energystate state
totoaalower-energy state. The light
lower-energy state. The light emitted emitted
(i.e.,
(i.e., itswavelength)
its wavelength)isisaafunction
functionofofthethe
changes in the energy levels of
changes in the energy levels of the outer, the outer,
valence
valenceelectron.
electron.For Forexample,
example,yellowyellowlight
light
may be produced from a
may be produced from a sodium vaporsodium vapor
lamp.
lamp.Matter
Mattercan canalso
alsobe besubjected
subjectedtotosuch
such
high temperatures that electrons,
high temperatures that electrons, which which
normally
normallymove moveinincaptured,
captured,non-radiating
non-radiating
orbits,
orbits, are broken free. Whenthis
are broken free. When thishappens,
happens,
the atom remains with a positive
the atom remains with a positive charge charge
equal
equaltotothe thenegatively
negativelychargedchargedelectron
electron
that
that escaped. The electron becomesaafree
escaped. The electron becomes free
electron,
electron, and the atom is called an ion.IfIf
and the atom is called an ion.
another
anotherfree freeelectron
electronfillsfillsthe
thevacant
vacantenergy
energy
level created by the free electron,
level created by the free electron, then then
radiation
radiationfrom fromall
allwavelengths
wavelengthsisisproduced,
produced,
i.e.,
i.e., a continuous spectrum of energy.The
a continuous spectrum of energy. The
Jensen2005 intense heat at the surface of the Sun
Jensen2005 intense heat at the surface of the Sun
produces
producesaacontinuous
continuousspectrum
spectrumininthisthis
manner.
manner.
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Electronorbitsareliketherungsofaladder
Electronorbitsareliketherungsofaladder.Addingenergymovesthe
.Addingenergymovesthe
electronuptheenergyladder;emittingenergymovesitdown.Theenergy
electronuptheenergyladder;emittingenergymovesitdown.Theenergy
ladderdiffersfromanordinaryladderinthatitsrungsareunevenly
ladderdiffersfromanordinaryladderinthatitsrungsareunevenly
spaced.Thismeansthattheenergyanelectronneedstoabsorb,ortogive
spaced.Thismeansthattheenergyanelectronneedstoabsorb,ortogive
up,inordertojumpfromoneorbittothenextmaynotbethesameasthe
up,inordertojumpfromoneorbittothenextmaynotbethesameasthe
energychangeneededforsomeotherstep.Also,anelectrondoesnot
energychangeneededforsomeotherstep.Also,anelectrondoesnot
alwaysuseconsecutiverungs.Instead,itfollowswhatphysicistscall
alwaysuseconsecutiverungs.Instead,itfollowswhatphysicistscall
selectionrules
selectionrules.Inmanycases,anelectronusesonesequenceofrungsasit
.Inmanycases,anelectronusesonesequenceofrungsasit
climbstheladderandanothersequenceasitdescends.Theenergythatis
climbstheladderandanothersequenceasitdescends.Theenergythatis
leftoverwhentheelectricallychargedelectronmovesfromanexcited
leftoverwhentheelectricallychargedelectronmovesfromanexcited
statetoadeexcitedstateis
statetoadeexcitedstateisemitted
emittedbytheatomasa
bytheatomasapacketofelectro
packetofelectro
magneticradiation
magneticradiation;aparticlelikeunitoflightcalleda
;aparticlelikeunitoflightcalledaphoton
photon..Everytime
Everytime
anelectronjumpsfromahighertoalowerenergylevel,aphotonmoves
anelectronjumpsfromahighertoalowerenergylevel,aphotonmoves
awayatthespeedoflight
awayatthespeedoflight..
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Substances
Substanceshave
havecolor becauseofdifferencesintheirenergylevels
colorbecauseof differencesintheirenergylevels
andtheselectionrules
andtheselectionrules..

Forexample,considerenergized
Forexample,considerenergizedsodiumvapor
sodiumvaporthatproducesa
thatproducesa
brightyellowlightthatisusedinsomestreetlamps.Whena
brightyellowlightthatisusedinsomestreetlamps.Whena
sodiumvaporlampisturnedon,severalthousandvoltsofelectricity
sodiumvaporlampisturnedon,severalthousandvoltsofelectricity
energizethevapor.Theoutermostelectronineachenergizedatom
energizethevapor.Theoutermostelectronineachenergizedatom
ofsodiumvaporclimbstoahighrungontheenergyladderandthen
ofsodiumvaporclimbstoahighrungontheenergyladderandthen
returnsdowntheladderinacertainsequenceofrungs,thelasttwo
returnsdowntheladderinacertainsequenceofrungs,thelasttwo
ofwhichare
ofwhichare2.1eV
2.1eVapart.Theenergyreleasedinthislastleap
apart.Theenergyreleasedinthislastleap
appearsasaphotonof
appearsasaphotonofyellow
yellowlightwithawavelengthof 0.58m
lightwithawavelengthof0.58 m
with2.1eVofenergy.
with2.1eVofenergy.
 CreationofLight
CreationofLight

Creation
Creationofoflight
lightfrom
fromatomic
atomicparticles
particles
ininaasodium vapor lamp . After
sodium vapor lamp. After being being
energized
energizedby byseveral
severalthousand
thousandvolts
voltsofof
electricity,
electricity,the
theoutermost
outermostelectron
electroninin
each
eachenergized
energizedatom
atomofofsodium
sodiumvapor
vapor
climbs
climbstotoaahigh
highrung
rungononthe
theenergy
energy
ladder
ladder and then returns downthe
and then returns down the
ladder
ladder in a predictable fashion.The
in a predictable fashion. The
last
last two rungs in the descent are2.1
two rungs in the descent are 2.1
eVeVapart.
apart.This
Thisproduces
producesaaphoton
photonofof
yellow
yellowlight,
light,which
whichhashas2.1
2.1eV
eVofof
energy.
energy.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 Energyof
Energyof
Quanta
Quanta
(Photons)
(Photons)

Theenergyofquanta
Theenergyofquanta
(photons)ranging
(photons)ranging
fromgammaraysto
fromgammaraysto
radiowavesinthe
radiowavesinthe
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
spectrum.
spectrum.
 ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy
ParticleModelofElectromagneticEnergy

Somehowanelectronmightdisappearfromitsoriginalorbitand
Somehowanelectronmightdisappearfromitsoriginalorbitand
reappearinitsdestinationorbitwithouteverhavingtotraverseany
reappearinitsdestinationorbitwithouteverhavingtotraverseany
ofthepositionsinbetween.Thisprocessiscalleda
ofthepositionsinbetween.Thisprocessiscalledaquantumleap
quantumleapor
or
quantumjump
quantumjump.Iftheelectronleapsfromitshighestexcitedstateto
.Iftheelectronleapsfromitshighestexcitedstateto
thegroundstateinasingleleapitwillemitasinglephotonof
thegroundstateinasingleleapitwillemitasinglephotonof
energy.Itisalsopossiblefortheelectrontoleapfromanexcited
energy.Itisalsopossiblefortheelectrontoleapfromanexcited
orbittothegroundstateinaseriesofjumps,e.g.from4to2to1.If
orbittothegroundstateinaseriesofjumps,e.g.from4to2to1.If
ittakestwoleapstogettothegroundstatetheneachofthesejumps
ittakestwoleapstogettothegroundstatetheneachofthesejumps
willemitphotonsofsomewhatlessenergy.Theenergiesemittedin
willemitphotonsofsomewhatlessenergy.Theenergiesemitted in
thetwodifferentjumpsmustsumtothetotalofthesinglelarge
thetwodifferentjumpsmustsumtothetotalofthesinglelarge
jump.
jump.
 Scattering
Scattering

Onceelectromagneticradiationisgenerated,itispropagated
Onceelectromagneticradiationisgenerated,itispropagated
throughtheearth'satmospherealmostatthespeedoflightina
throughtheearth'satmospherealmostatthespeedoflightina
vacuum.
vacuum.

Unlikeavacuuminwhichnothinghappens,however,the
Unlikeavacuuminwhichnothinghappens,however,the
atmospheremayaffectnotonlythespeedofradiationbutalsoits
atmospheremayaffectnotonlythespeedofradiationbutalsoits
wavelength
wavelength,,intensity
intensity,,spectraldistribution
spectraldistribution,and/or
,and/ordirection
direction..
 Scattering
Scattering
Scatter
Scatterdiffersfrom
differsfromreflection
reflectioninthatthedirectionassociatedwith
inthatthedirectionassociatedwith
scatteringisun
scatteringis unpredictable,whereasthedirectionofreflectionis
predictable,whereasthedirectionofreflectionis
predictable.Thereareessentiallythreetypesofscattering:
predictable.Thereareessentiallythreetypesofscattering:

Rayleigh,
Rayleigh,

Mie,
Mie,and
and

Nonselective
Nonselective..
 Atmospheric
AtmosphericLayers
Layers
and
andConstituents
Constituents

Major
Majorsubdivisions
subdivisionsofofthe
the
atmosphere
atmosphereandandthe
thetypes
typesofof
molecules
moleculesandandaerosols
aerosolsfound
foundinin
each
eachlayer.
layer.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 RayleighScattering
RayleighScattering
Rayleighscattering
Rayleighscatteringoccurswhenthediameterofthematter(usuallyair
occurswhenthediameterofthematter(usuallyair
molecules)are
molecules)aremanytimessmallerthanthewavelengthoftheincident
manytimessmallerthanthewavelengthoftheincident
electromagneticradiation
electromagneticradiation.ThistypeofscatteringisnamedaftertheEnglish
.ThistypeofscatteringisnamedaftertheEnglish
physicistwhoofferedthefirstcoherentexplanationforit.Allscatteringis
physicistwhoofferedthefirstcoherentexplanationforit.Allscatteringis
accomplishedthroughabsorptionandreemissionofradiationbyatomsor
accomplishedthroughabsorptionandreemissionofradiationbyatomsor
moleculesinthemannerdescribedinthediscussiononradiationfromatomic
moleculesinthemannerdescribedinthediscussiononradiationfromatomic
structures.Itisimpossibletopredictthedirectioninwhichaspecificatomor
structures.Itisimpossibletopredictthedirectioninwhichaspecificatomor
moleculewillemitaphoton,hencescattering.
moleculewillemitaphoton,hencescattering.

Theenergyrequiredtoexciteanatomisassociatedwithshortwavelength,high
Theenergyrequiredtoexciteanatomisassociatedwithshortwavelength,high
frequencyradiation.
frequencyradiation.Theamountofscatteringisinverselyrelatedtothefourth
Theamountofscatteringisinverselyrelatedtothefourth
poweroftheradiation'swavelength Forexample,bluelight(0.4m)is
poweroftheradiation'swavelength..Forexample,bluelight(0.4 m)is
scattered16timesmorethannearinfraredlight(0.8m).
scattered16timesmorethannearinfraredlight(0.8 m).
 AtmosphericScattering
AtmosphericScattering

Type
Typeof
ofscattering
scatteringisisaafunction
functionof:
of:

1)
1) the
thewavelength
wavelengthofofthe
theincident
incident
radiant
radiantenergy,
energy,and
and

1)
1) the
thesize
sizeof
ofthe
thegas
gasmolecule,
molecule,
dust
dustparticle,
particle,and/or
and/orwater
water
vapor
vapordroplet
dropletencountered.
encountered.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 Rayleigh
Rayleigh
Scattering
Scattering

Theintensityof
Theintensityof
Rayleighscattering
Rayleighscattering
variesinverselywith
variesinverselywith
thefourthpowerofthe
thefourthpowerofthe
wavelength(4).).
wavelength( 4

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 RayleighScattering
RayleighScattering
Rayleighscattering
Rayleighscatteringisresponsibleforthe
isresponsiblefortheblue
bluesky
sky.Theshortvioletand
.Theshortvioletand
bluewavelengthsaremoreefficientlyscatteredthanthelongerorange
bluewavelengthsaremoreefficientlyscatteredthanthelongerorange
andredwavelengths.Whenwelookuponcloudlessdayandadmirethe
andredwavelengths.Whenwelookuponcloudlessdayandadmirethe
bluesky,wewitnessthepreferentialscatteringoftheshortwavelength
bluesky,wewitnessthepreferentialscatteringoftheshortwavelength
sunlight.
sunlight.

Rayleighscatteringisresponsiblefor
Rayleighscatteringisresponsibleforred
redsunsets
sunsets..Sincethe
Sincethe
atmosphereisathinshellofgravitationallyboundgassurroundingthe
atmosphereisathinshellofgravitationallyboundgassurroundingthe
solidEarth,sunlightmustpassthroughalongerslantpathofairat
solidEarth,sunlightmustpassthroughalongerslantpathofairat
sunset(orsunrise)thanatnoon.Sincethevioletandbluewavelengths
sunset(orsunrise)thanatnoon.Sincethevioletandbluewavelengths
arescatteredevenmoreduringtheirnowlongerpaththroughtheair
arescatteredevenmoreduringtheirnowlongerpaththroughtheair
thanwhentheSunisoverhead,whatweseewhenwelooktowardthe
thanwhentheSunisoverhead,whatweseewhenwelooktowardthe
Sunistheresiduethewavelengthsofsunlightthatarehardlyscattered
Sunistheresiduethewavelengthsofsunlightthatarehardlyscattered
awayatall,especiallytheorangesandreds(Sagan,1994).
awayatall,especiallytheorangesandreds(Sagan,1994).
 RayleighScattering
RayleighScattering

The
Theapproximate
approximateamount
amountofofRayleigh
Rayleighscattering
scatteringin
inthe
the
atmosphere
atmosphereininoptical
opticalwavelengths
wavelengths(0.4 0.7m)
(0.40.7 m)may
maybe be
computed
computedusing
usingthe
theRayleigh
Rayleighscattering cross-section((mm))
scatteringcross-section
algorithm:
algorithm:

mm

88 nn 11
33 22

22

33NN
22 44

where
wherenn==refractive
refractiveindex
index,,NN==number
numberofofair
airmolecules
moleculesper perunit
unit
volume and==wavelength
volume,,and wavelength..The
Theamount
amountofofscattering
scatteringisis
inversely
inverselyrelated
relatedto
tothe
thefourth
fourthpower
powerof
ofthe
theradiations
radiations
wavelength.
wavelength.
 MieScattering
MieScattering

Miescattering
Miescatteringtakesplacewhenthereareessentially
takesplacewhenthereareessentiallyspherical
sphericalparticles
particles
presentintheatmosphere
presentintheatmospherewithdiametersapproximatelyequaltothe
withdiametersapproximatelyequaltothe
wavelengthofradiationbeingconsidered
wavelengthofradiationbeingconsidered.Forvisiblelight,watervapor,
.Forvisiblelight,watervapor,
dust,andotherparticlesrangingfromafewtenthsofamicrometerto
dust,andotherparticlesrangingfromafewtenthsofamicrometerto
severalmicrometersindiameterarethemainscatteringagents.The
severalmicrometersindiameterarethemainscatteringagents.The
amountofscatterisgreaterthanRayleighscatterandthewavelengths
amountofscatterisgreaterthanRayleighscatterandthewavelengths
scatteredarelonger.
scatteredarelonger.

Pollution
Pollutionalsocontributestobeautiful
alsocontributestobeautifulsunsets
sunsetsand
andsunrises
sunrises.Thegreater
.Thegreater
theamountofsmokeanddustparticlesintheatmosphericcolumn,the
theamountofsmokeanddustparticlesintheatmosphericcolumn,the
morevioletandbluelightwillbescatteredawayandonlythelonger
morevioletandbluelightwillbescatteredawayandonlythelonger
orange
orangeand
andred
redwavelengthlightwillreachoureyes.
wavelengthlightwillreachoureyes.
 NonselectiveScattering
NonselectiveScattering

Nonselectivescattering
Nonselectivescatteringisproducedwhenthereareparticlesinthe
isproducedwhenthereareparticlesinthe
atmosphere
atmosphereseveraltimesthediameteroftheradiationbeing
severaltimesthediameteroftheradiationbeing
transmitted
transmitted.Thistypeofscatteringisnonselective,i.e.allwavelengths
.Thistypeofscatteringisnonselective,i.e.allwavelengths
oflightarescattered,notjustblue,green,orred.Thus,waterdroplets,
oflightarescattered,notjustblue,green,orred.Thus,waterdroplets,
whichmakeupcloudsandfogbanks,scatterallwavelengthsofvisible
whichmakeupcloudsandfogbanks,scatterallwavelengthsofvisible
lightequallywell,causingthecloudtoappearwhite(amixtureofall
lightequallywell,causingthecloudtoappearwhite(amixtureofall
colorsoflightinapproximatelyequalquantitiesproduceswhite).
colorsoflightinapproximatelyequalquantitiesproduceswhite).

Scatteringcanseverelyreducetheinformationcontentofremotely
Scatteringcanseverelyreducetheinformationcontentofremotely
senseddatatothepointthattheimageryloosescontrastanditisdifficult
senseddatatothepointthattheimageryloosescontrastanditisdifficult
todifferentiateoneobjectfromanother.
todifferentiateoneobjectfromanother.
 AtmosphericScattering
AtmosphericScattering

Type
Typeof
ofscattering
scatteringisisaafunction
functionof:
of:

1)
1) the
thewavelength
wavelengthofofthe
theincident
incident
radiant
radiantenergy,
energy,and
and

1)
1) the
thesize
sizeof
ofthe
thegas
gasmolecule,
molecule,
dust
dustparticle,
particle,and/or
and/orwater
water
vapor
vapordroplet
dropletencountered.
encountered.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 Absorption
Absorption
Absorption
Absorptionistheprocessbywhichradiantenergyis
istheprocessbywhichradiantenergyis
absorbedandconvertedintootherformsofenergy.An
absorbedandconvertedintootherformsofenergy.An
absorptionband
absorptionbandisarangeofwavelengths(orfrequencies)in
isarangeofwavelengths(orfrequencies)in
theelectromagneticspectrumwithinwhichradiantenergyis
theelectromagneticspectrumwithinwhichradiantenergyis
absorbedbysubstancessuchaswater(H
absorbedbysubstancessuchaswater(H22O),carbondioxide
O),carbondioxide
(CO
(CO22),oxygen(O
),oxygen(O22),ozone(O
),ozone(O33),andnitrousoxide(N
),andnitrousoxide(N22O).
O).

Thecumulativeeffectoftheabsorptionbythevarious
Thecumulativeeffectoftheabsorptionbythevarious
constituentscancausetheatmosphereto
constituentscancausetheatmospheretoclosedown
closedownin
in
certainregionsofthespectrum.Thisisbadforremote
certainregionsofthespectrum.Thisisbadforremote
sensingbecausenoenergyisavailabletobesensed.
sensingbecausenoenergyisavailabletobesensed.
 Absorption
Absorption
Incertainpartsofthespectrumsuchasthevisibleregion(0.40.7m),the
Incertainpartsofthespectrumsuchasthevisibleregion(0.40.7m),the
atmospheredoesnotabsorballoftheincidentenergybuttransmitsiteffectively.Parts
atmospheredoesnotabsorballoftheincidentenergybuttransmitsiteffectively.Parts
ofthespectrumthattransmitenergyeffectivelyarecalledatmosphericwindows.
ofthespectrumthattransmitenergyeffectivelyarecalledatmosphericwindows.

Absorptionoccurswhenenergyofthesamefrequencyastheresonantfrequencyof
Absorptionoccurswhenenergyofthesamefrequencyastheresonantfrequencyof
anatomormoleculeisabsorbed,producinganexcitedstate.If,insteadofreradiating
anatomormoleculeisabsorbed,producinganexcitedstate.If,insteadofreradiating
aphotonofthesamewavelength,theenergyistransformedintoheatmotionandis
aphotonofthesamewavelength,theenergyistransformedintoheatmotionandis
reradiatedatalongerwavelength,absorptionoccurs.Whendealingwithamediumlike
reradiatedatalongerwavelength,absorptionoccurs.Whendealingwithamediumlike
air,absorptionandscatteringarefrequentlycombinedintoanextinctioncoefficient.
air,absorptionandscatteringarefrequentlycombinedintoanextinctioncoefficient.

Transmissionisinverselyrelatedtotheextinctioncoefficienttimesthethicknessof
Transmissionisinverselyrelatedtotheextinctioncoefficienttimesthethicknessof
thelayer.Certainwavelengthsofradiationareaffectedfarmorebyabsorptionthanby
thelayer.Certainwavelengthsofradiationareaffectedfarmorebyabsorptionthanby
scattering.Thisisparticularlytrueofinfraredandwavelengthsshorterthanvisible
scattering.Thisisparticularlytrueofinfraredandwavelengthsshorterthanvisible
light.
light.
AbsorptionoftheSun'sIncidentElectromagneticEnergyinthe
AbsorptionoftheSun'sIncidentElectromagneticEnergyinthe
Regionfrom0.1to30mbyVariousAtmosphericGases
Regionfrom0.1to30 mbyVariousAtmosphericGases

window

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
a)a)The
Theabsorption
absorptionof ofthe
theSuns
Sunsincident
incident
electromagnetic
electromagneticenergyenergyininthe theregion
region
from
from0.1 30mmby
0.1toto30 byvarious
various
atmospheric
atmosphericgases.gases.TheThefirst
firstfour
fourgraphs
graphs
depict
depictthe
theabsorption
absorptioncharacteristics
characteristicsof of
NN2O, O2 and O3, CO2, and H2O, while
2O, O2 and O3, CO2, and H2O, while
the
thefinal
finalgraphic
graphicdepicts
depictsthe thecumulative
cumulative
result
resultofofall
allthese
theseconstituents
constituentsbeingbeinginin
the
theatmosphere
atmosphereatatone onetime.
time.The
The
atmosphere
atmosphereessentially
essentiallycloses
closesdown
downinin
certain
certainportions
portionsof ofthe
thespectrum
spectrumwhilewhile
atmospheric
atmosphericwindows
windowsexist existininother
other
regions
regionsthat
thattransmit
transmitincident
incidentenergy
energy
effectively
effectivelytotothetheground.
ground.ItItisiswithin
within
these
thesewindows
windowsthat thatremote
remotesensing
sensing
systems
systemsmustmustfunction.
function.
b)
b)The
Thecombined
combinedeffects
effectsof ofatmospheric
atmospheric
absorption,
absorption,scattering,
scattering,and andreflectance
reflectance
reduce
reducethetheamount
amountof ofsolar
solarirradiance
irradiance
reaching
reachingthetheEarths
Earthssurface
surfaceatatseasealevel.
level.
 Reflectance
Reflectance

Reflectance
Reflectanceistheprocesswherebyradiation
istheprocesswherebyradiationbouncesoff
bouncesoffan
an
objectlikeacloudortheterrain.Actually,theprocessismore
objectlikeacloudortheterrain.Actually,theprocessismore
complicated,involving
complicated,involvingreradiationofphotonsinunisonby
reradiationofphotonsinunisonby
atomsormoleculesinalayeronehalfwavelengthdeep
atomsormoleculesinalayeronehalfwavelengthdeep..

Reflectionexhibitsfundamentalcharacteristicsthatare
Reflectionexhibitsfundamentalcharacteristicsthatare
importantinremotesensing.First,theincidentradiation,the
importantinremotesensing.First,theincidentradiation,the
reflectedradiation,andaverticaltothesurfacefromwhichthe
reflectedradiation,andaverticaltothesurfacefromwhichthe
anglesofincidenceandreflectionaremeasuredalllieinthe
anglesofincidenceandreflectionaremeasuredalllieinthe
sameplane.Second,theangleofincidenceandtheangleof
sameplane.Second,theangleofincidenceandtheangleof
reflectionareequal.
reflectionareequal.
 Reflectance
Reflectance
Therearevarioustypesofreflectingsurfaces:
Therearevarioustypesofreflectingsurfaces:

When
Whenspecularreflection
specularreflectionoccurs,thesurfacefromwhichtheradiationisreflectedis
occurs,thesurfacefromwhichtheradiationisreflectedis
essentially
essentiallysmooth
smooth(i.e.theaveragesurfaceprofileisseveraltimessmallerthanthe
(i.e.theaveragesurfaceprofileisseveraltimessmallerthanthe
wavelengthofradiationstrikingthesurface).
wavelengthofradiationstrikingthesurface).

Ifthesurfaceis
Ifthesurfaceisrough
rough,thereflectedraysgoinmanydirections,dependingonthe
,thereflectedraysgoinmanydirections,dependingonthe
orientationofthesmallerreflectingsurfaces.Thisdiffusereflectiondoesnotyielda
orientationofthesmallerreflectingsurfaces.Thisdiffusereflectiondoesnotyielda
mirrorimage,butinsteadproduces
mirrorimage,butinsteadproducesdiffusedradiation
diffusedradiation.Whitepaper,whitepowdersand
.Whitepaper,whitepowdersand
othermaterialsreflectvisiblelightinthisdiffusemanner.
othermaterialsreflectvisiblelightinthisdiffusemanner.

Ifthesurfaceissoroughthattherearenoindividualreflectingsurfaces,then
Ifthesurfaceissoroughthattherearenoindividualreflectingsurfaces,then
scatteringmayoccur.Lambertdefineda
scatteringmayoccur.Lambertdefinedaperfectlydiffusesurface
perfectlydiffusesurface;hencethecommonly
;hencethecommonly
designated
designatedLambertiansurface
Lambertiansurfaceisoneforwhichtheradiantfluxleavingthesurfaceis
isoneforwhichtheradiantfluxleavingthesurfaceis
constantforanyangleofreflectancetothesurfacenormal.
constantforanyangleofreflectancetothesurfacenormal.
 Reflectance
Reflectance

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 TerrainEnergyMatterInteractions
TerrainEnergyMatterInteractions

Radiometric
Radiometricquantities quantitieshave havebeen beenidentified
identifiedthat thatallow
allowanalysts
analysts
tokeepacarefulrecordoftheincidentandexitingradiantflux.
tokeepacarefulrecordoftheincidentandexitingradiantflux.
We
Webegin
beginwith withthe thesimple
simpleradiationradiationbudget
budgetequation
equation,,which
which
states
states that
that the the total total amount
amount of of radiant
radiant flux flux in
in specific
specific
wavelengths()incidenttotheterrain()mustbeaccounted
wavelengths( i
)incidenttotheterrain()mustbeaccounted

i
forbyevaluatingtheamountofradiantfluxreflectedfromthe
forbyevaluatingtheamountofradiantfluxreflectedfromthe
surface((reflected
surface reflected
),
),the
theamount
amountof ofradiant
radiantfluxfluxabsorbed
absorbedbybythe
the
surface
surface((absorbed
),
absorbed ),and
and the
the amount
amount of
of radiant
radiant flux
fluxtransmitted
transmitted

throughthesurface():
throughthesurface(): transmitted
transmitte d

ii
reflected absorbed
reflected absorbed transmitte
transmittedd

 TerrainEnergyMatterInteractions
TerrainEnergyMatterInteractions

Thetimerateofflowofenergyonto,offof,orthroughasurfaceis
Thetimerateofflowofenergyonto,offof,orthroughasurfaceis
called radiantflux((
calledradiantflux )andismeasuredinwatts(W).The
)andismeasuredinwatts(W).The
characteristicsoftheradiantfluxandwhathappenstoitasit
characteristicsoftheradiantfluxandwhathappenstoitasit
interactswiththeEarthssurfaceisofcriticalimportanceinremote
interactswiththeEarthssurfaceisofcriticalimportanceinremote
sensing.Infact,thisisthefundamentalfocusofmuchremote
sensing.Infact,thisisthefundamentalfocusofmuchremote
sensingresearch.Bycarefullymonitoringtheexactnatureofthe
sensingresearch.Bycarefullymonitoringtheexactnatureofthe
incoming(incident)radiantfluxinselectivewavelengthsandhowit
incoming(incident)radiantfluxinselectivewavelengthsandhowit
interactswiththeterrain,itispossibletolearnimportant
interactswiththeterrain,itispossibletolearnimportant
informationabouttheterrain.
informationabouttheterrain.
 HemisphericalReflectance,Absorptance,andTransmittance
HemisphericalReflectance,Absorptance,andTransmittance

The
TheHemispherical
Hemisphericalreflectance
reflectance( ())isisdefined
definedasasthe
thedimensionless
dimensionlessratio
ratioof
ofthe
theradiant
radiant
flux
fluxreflected
reflectedfrom
fromaasurface
surfacetotothe
theradiant
radiantflux
fluxincident
incidenttotoit:
it:
reflected
reflected
i
i

Hemispherical
Hemisphericaltransmittance
transmittance(())isisdefined
definedasasthe
thedimensionless
dimensionlessratio
ratioof
ofthe
theradiant
radiantflux
flux
transmitted
transmittedthrough
throughaasurface
surfacetotothetheradiant
radiantflux
fluxincident
incidenttotoit:
it:

transmitted
transmitted
i
i

Hemispherical
Hemisphericalabsorptance
absorptance(
())isisdefined
definedby
bythe
thedimensionless
dimensionlessrelationship:
relationship:

absorbed
absorbed
i
i
 HemisphericalReflectance,Absorptance,andTransmittance
HemisphericalReflectance,Absorptance,andTransmittance

These
Theseradiometric
radiometricquantities
quantitiesare
areuseful
usefulfor forproducing
producinggeneral
generalstatements
statementsabout
aboutthe
the
spectral
spectralreflectance,
reflectance,absorptance,
absorptance,and
andtransmittance
transmittancecharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofterrain
terrainfeatures.
features.In
In
fact,
fact,ififwe
wetake
takethe
thesimple
simplehemispherical
hemisphericalreflectance
reflectanceequation
equationand
andmultiply
multiplyititby
by100,
100,we
we
obtain
obtainan anexpression
expressionforforpercent
percentreflectance

reflectance
%

(( ):):
%

reflected
% reflected 100
100
% ii

Thisquantityisusedinremotesensingresearchtodescribethegeneralspectral
Thisquantityisusedinremotesensingresearchtodescribethegeneralspectral
reflectancecharacteristicsofvariousphenomena.
reflectancecharacteristicsofvariousphenomena.
 Typical
Typicalspectral
spectral
reflectance
reflectancecurves
curves
for
forurbansuburban
urbansuburban
phenomena
phenomenain inthe
the
region
region0.4 0.9m.
0.40.9 m.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 IrradianceandExitance
IrradianceandExitance

Theamountofradiantfluxincidentuponasurfaceperunitareaofthat
Theamountofradiantfluxincidentuponasurfaceperunitareaofthat
surfaceiscalled
surfaceiscalledIrradiance
Irradiance((EE),),where:
where:

EE
AA
Theamountofradiantfluxleavingperunitareaoftheplanesurfaceis
Theamountofradiantfluxleavingperunitareaoftheplanesurfaceis
called
calledExitance
Exitance((M
M).).


M
M
AA
Bothquantitiesaremeasuredin
Bothquantitiesaremeasuredinwattspermetersquared(Wm
wattspermetersquared(Wm2)). .
2

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 RadiantFluxDensity
RadiantFluxDensity
The
Theconcept
conceptofofradiant
radiantflux
fluxdensity
densityfor
foran
an
area
areaon
onthe
thesurface
surfaceof
ofthe
theEarth.
Earth.

Irradiance
Irradianceisisaameasure
measureof ofthe
theamount
amount
of
ofradiant
radiantflux
fluxincident
incidentupon
uponaa
surface
surfaceper
perunit
unitarea
areaofofthe
thesurface
surface
measured
measuredininwatts
wattsmm-2. .
-2

Exitance
Exitanceisisaameasure
measureofofthe
theamount
amount
of
ofradiant
radiantflux
fluxleaving
leavingaasurface
surfaceper
per
unit
unitarea
areaofofthe
thesurface
surfacemeasured
measuredinin
watts
wattsmm-2. .
-2

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 Radiance
Radiance
Radiance(L
Radiance(L))istheradiantfluxperunitsolidangleleavinganextended
istheradiantfluxperunitsolidangleleavinganextended
sourceinagivendirectionperunitprojectedsourceareainthatdirection
sourceinagivendirectionperunitprojectedsourceareainthatdirection
andismeasuredinwattspermetersquaredpersteradian(Wm
andismeasuredinwattspermetersquaredpersteradian(Wm 2sr
2
sr1).We
1
).We
areonlyinterestedintheradiantfluxincertainwavelengths(
areonlyinterestedintheradiantfluxincertainwavelengths(LL)leaving
)leaving
theprojectedsourcearea( )withinacertaindirection()andsolidangle
theprojectedsourcearea(AA)withinacertaindirection( )andsolidangle
(():
):

LL
LL
cos
cos AAcos cos

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
The
Theconcept
conceptofofradiance
radiance
leaving
leavingaaspecific
specificprojected
projected
source
sourcearea
areaon
onthe
theground,
ground,
ininaaspecific
specificdirection,
direction,and
and
within
withinaaspecific
specificsolid
solidangle.
angle.

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
Radiance
Radiance(L (LTT))from
frompaths
paths1,1,3,3,
and
and55contains
containsintrinsic
intrinsicvaluable
valuable
spectral
spectralinformation
informationabout aboutthethe
target
targetof
ofinterest.
interest.Conversely,
Conversely,the the
path
pathradiance
radiance(L (Lp)p)from
frompaths
paths22
and
and44includes
includesdiffuse
diffusesky sky
irradiance
irradianceor orradiance
radiancefrom from
neighboring
neighboringareasareason onthetheground.
ground.
This
Thispath
pathradiance
radiancegenerally
generally
introduces
introducesunwanted
unwantedradiometric
radiometric
noise
noiseininthe
theremotely
remotelysensed senseddata
data
and
andcomplicates
complicatesthe theimage
image
interpretation
interpretationprocess.
process.

Jensen2004
Jensen2004
Path1
Path1containsspectralsolar
containsspectralsolar
irradiance()thatwas
EEo
irradiance()thatwas

o

attenuatedverylittlebefore
attenuatedverylittlebefore
illuminatingtheterrainwithin
illuminatingtheterrainwithin
theIFOV.Noticeinthiscasethat
theIFOV.Noticeinthiscasethat
weareinterestedinthesolar
weareinterestedinthesolar
irradiancefromaspecificsolar
irradiancefromaspecificsolar
zenithangle()andthatthe
o
zenithangle()andthatthe
o
amountofirradiancereaching
amountofirradiancereaching
theterrainisafunctionofthe
theterrainisafunctionofthe
atmospherictransmittanceatthis
atmospherictransmittanceatthis
angle().Ifallofthe
TT
angle().Ifallofthe
o

irradiancemakesittotheground,
o

irradiancemakesittotheground,
thentheatmospheric
thentheatmospheric
transmittance()equalsone.
TT
transmittance()equalsone.
o
o

Ifnoneoftheirradiancemakesit
Ifnoneoftheirradiancemakesit
totheground,thenthe
totheground,thenthe
atmospherictransmittanceiszero
atmospherictransmittanceiszero

Jensen2004
Jensen2004
Path2
Path2containsspectraldiffusesky
containsspectraldiffusesky
irradiance()thatnevereven
EEd
irradiance()thatnevereven

d
reachestheEarthssurface(the
reachestheEarthssurface(the
targetstudyarea)becauseof
targetstudyarea)becauseof
scatteringintheatmosphere.
scatteringintheatmosphere.
Unfortunately,suchenergyisoften
Unfortunately,suchenergyisoften
scattereddirectlyintotheIFOVof
scattereddirectlyintotheIFOVof
thesensorsystem.Aspreviously
thesensorsystem.Aspreviously
discussed,Rayleighscatteringof
discussed,Rayleighscatteringof
bluelightcontributesmuchtothis
bluelightcontributesmuchtothis
diffuseskyirradiance.Thatiswhy
diffuseskyirradiance.Thatiswhy
thebluebandimageproducedbya
thebluebandimageproducedbya
remotesensorsystemisoftenmuch
remotesensorsystemisoftenmuch
brighterthananyoftheotherbands.
brighterthananyoftheotherbands.
Itcontainsmuchunwanteddiffuse
Itcontainsmuchunwanteddiffuse
skyirradiancethatwasinadvertently
skyirradiancethatwasinadvertently
scatteredintotheIFOVofthesensor
scatteredintotheIFOVofthesensor
system.Therefore,ifpossible,we
system.Therefore,ifpossible,we
wanttominimizeitseffects.Green
wanttominimizeitseffects.Green
(2003)referstothequantityasthe
(2003)referstothequantityasthe
upwardreflectanceofthe
upwardreflectanceofthe
atmosphere().
EEdu
atmosphere().
du

Path3containsenergyfromthe
Path3containsenergyfromthe
Sunthathasundergonesome
Sunthathasundergonesome
Rayleigh,Mie,and/or
Rayleigh,Mie,and/or
nonselectivescatteringand
nonselectivescatteringand
perhapssomeabsorptionand
perhapssomeabsorptionand
reemissionbeforeilluminating
reemissionbeforeilluminating
thestudyarea.Thus,itsspectral
thestudyarea.Thus,itsspectral
compositionandpolarization
compositionandpolarization
maybesomewhatdifferentfrom
maybesomewhatdifferentfrom
theenergythatreachesthe
theenergythatreachesthe
groundfrompath1.Green
groundfrompath1.Green
(2003)referstothisquantityas
(2003)referstothisquantityas
thedownwardreflectanceofthe
thedownwardreflectanceofthe
atmosphere().
EEdd
atmosphere().

dd
Path4
Path4containsradiationthat
containsradiationthat
wasreflectedorscatteredby
wasreflectedorscatteredby

nearbyterrain()coveredby
nearbyterrain()coveredby
n
n

snow,concrete,soil,water,
snow,concrete,soil,water,
and/orvegetationintotheIFOV
and/orvegetationintotheIFOV
ofthesensorsystem.Theenergy
ofthesensorsystem.Theenergy
doesnotactuallyilluminatethe
doesnotactuallyilluminatethe
studyareaofinterest.Therefore,
studyareaofinterest.Therefore,
ifpossible,wewouldliketo
ifpossible,wewouldliketo
minimizeitseffects.
minimizeitseffects.

Path2andPath4combineto
Path2andPath4combineto
producewhatiscommonly
producewhatiscommonly
referredtoas
referredtoasPathRadiance,L
PathRadiance,Lp.p.
Path5
Path5isenergythatwasalso
isenergythatwasalso
reflectedfromnearbyterraininto
reflectedfromnearbyterraininto
theatmosphere,butthen
theatmosphere,butthen
scatteredorreflectedontothe
scatteredorreflectedontothe
studyarea.
studyarea.
 Thetotalradiancereachingthesensoris:
Thetotalradiancereachingthesensoris:

11
LLSS TTv EEooTTo cos
cosooEEdd LLpp
v o

Thismaybesummarizedas:
Thismaybesummarizedas:

LLSS LLTT LLpp

 AtmosphericCorrectionUsingATCOR
AtmosphericCorrectionUsingATCOR

a)Imagecontainingsubstantialhazepriortoatmosphericcorrection.b)Imageafter
a)Imagecontainingsubstantialhazepriortoatmosphericcorrection.b)Imageafter
atmosphericcorrectionusingATCOR(CourtesyLeicaGeosystemsandDLR,the
atmosphericcorrectionusingATCOR(CourtesyLeicaGeosystemsandDLR,the
GermanAerospaceCentre).
GermanAerospaceCentre).
 EmpiricalLineCalibration
EmpiricalLineCalibration
a)LandsatThematicMapperimage
a)LandsatThematicMapperimage
acquiredonFebruary3,1994was
acquiredonFebruary3,1994was
radiometricallycorrectedusingempirical
radiometricallycorrectedusingempirical
linecalibrationandpairedNASAJPLand
linecalibrationandpairedNASAJPLand
JohnsHopkinsUniversityspectrallibrary
JohnsHopkinsUniversityspectrallibrary
beachandwaterinsituspectroradiometer
beachandwaterinsituspectroradiometer
measurementsandLandsatTMimage
measurementsandLandsatTMimage
brightnessvalues(BV
brightnessvalues(BVi,j,k ).
i,j,k).
b)Apixelofloblollypinewithits
b)Apixelofloblollypinewithits
originalbrightnessvaluesinsixbands
originalbrightnessvaluesinsixbands
(TMband6thermaldatawerenotused).
(TMband6thermaldatawerenotused).
c)Thesamepixelafterempiricalline
c)Thesamepixelafterempiricalline
calibrationtoscaledsurfacereflectance.
calibrationtoscaledsurfacereflectance.
Notethecorrectchlorophyllabsorptionin
Notethecorrectchlorophyllabsorptionin
theblue(band1)andred(band3)
theblue(band1)andred(band3)
portionsofthespectrumandtheincrease
portionsofthespectrumandtheincrease
innearinfraredreflectance.
innearinfraredreflectance.
 IndexofRefraction
IndexofRefraction

The
Theindex
indexofofrefraction
refraction(n)
(n)isisaameasure
measureofofthe
theoptical
opticaldensity
densityof
ofaasubstance.
substance.This
Thisindex
indexisis
the
theratio
ratioof
ofthe
thespeed
speedof
oflight
lightininaavacuum,
vacuum, c,c,totothe
thespeed
speedof
oflight
lightininaasubstance
substancesuch
suchas
as
the
theatmosphere
atmosphereor orwater,
water,ccnn(Mulligan,
(Mulligan,1980):
1980):

cc
nn
ccnn
The
The speed
speed ofof light
light inin aa substance
substance can
can never
never reach
reach the
the speed
speed of
of light
light inin aa vacuum.
vacuum.
Therefore,
Therefore,its
itsindex
indexof ofrefraction
refractionmust
mustalways
alwaysbe
begreater
greaterthan
than1.1.For
Forexample,
example,the theindex
indexof
of
refraction
refractionfor
forthe
theatmosphere
atmosphereisis1.0002926
1.0002926and
and1.33
1.33for
forwater.
water.Light
Lighttravels
travelsmore
moreslowly
slowly
through
throughwater
waterbecause
becauseof ofwaters
watershigher
higherdensity.
density.
 SnellsLaw
SnellsLaw

Refraction
Refraction can
can be
be described
described by
by Snells
Snells law,
law, which
which states
states that
that for
for aa given
given frequency
frequency of
of
light
light(we
(wemust
mustuse
usefrequency
frequencysince,
since,unlike
unlikewavelength,
wavelength,ititdoes
doesnotnotchange
changewhen
whenthethespeed
speed
of
oflight
lightchanges),
changes),the
theproduct
productof ofthe
theindex
indexofofrefraction
refractionand
andthethesine
sineofofthe
theangle
anglebetween
between
the
theray
rayand
andaaline
linenormal
normaltotothe
theinterface
interfaceisisconstant:
constant:

sin11 nn22sin
nn11sin sin22
From
Fromthe
theaccompanying
accompanyingfigure,
figure,we
wecan
cansee
seethat
thataanonturbulent
nonturbulentatmosphere
atmospherecan canbe
bethought
thought
of
ofas
asaaseries
seriesof
oflayers
layersof
ofgases,
gases,each
eachwith
withaaslightly
slightlydifferent
differentdensity.
density.Anytime
Anytimeenergy
energyisis
propagated
propagated through
through the
the atmosphere
atmosphere for
for any
any appreciable
appreciable distance
distance atat any
any angle
angle other
other than
than
vertical,
vertical,refraction
refractionoccurs.
occurs.
 Atmospheric
Atmospheric
Refraction
Refraction

Refraction
Refractionininthree
threenonturbulent
nonturbulent
atmospheric
atmosphericlayers.
layers.The
Theincident
incident
energy
energyisisbent
bentfromfromits
itsnormal
normal
trajectory
trajectoryasasitittravels
travelsfrom
fromone one
atmospheric
atmosphericlayerlayertotoanother.
another.
Snells
Snellslaw
lawcan
canbe beused
usedtotopredict
predict
how
howmuch
muchbending
bendingwill willtaketake
place,
place,based
basedon onaaknowledge
knowledgeofof
the
theangle
angleofofincidence
incidence() ()and andthe
the
index
indexofofrefraction
refractionofofeach each
atmospheric
atmosphericlevel,
level,nn1, ,nn2, ,nn3. .
1 2 3

Jensen2005
Jensen2005
 SnellsLaw
SnellsLaw

The
Theamount
amountof ofrefraction
refractionisisaafunction
functionof ofthe
theangle
anglemade
madewith
withthe
thevertical
vertical(),
(),the
thedistance
distance
involved
involved (in
(in the
the atmosphere
atmosphere thethe greater
greater the
the distance,
distance, the
the more
more changes
changes inin density),
density), and
and
the
thedensity
densityof
ofthe
theair
airinvolved
involved(air
(airisisusually
usuallymore
moredense
densenear
nearsea
sealevel).
level).Serious
Seriouserrors
errorsinin
location
location due
due toto refraction
refraction can
can occur
occur inin images
images formed
formed from
from energy
energy detected
detected atat high
high
altitudes
altitudesor
oratatacute
acuteangles.
angles.However,
However,thesetheselocation
locationerrors
errorsare
arepredictable
predictableby bySnells
Snellslaw
law
and
andthus
thuscan
canbe beremoved.
removed.Notice
Noticethat
that
nn11sin
sin 11
sin22
sin
nn22
Therefore,
Therefore, ifif one
one knows
knows the the index
index of
of refraction
refraction of of medium
medium nn11 and and nn22 and
and the
the angle
angle of
of
incidence
incidence ofof the
the energy
energy toto medium
medium nn1,1, itit isis possible
possible toto predict
predict the
the amount
amount of of refraction
refraction
that
thatwill
willtake
takeplace (sin2)2)ininmedium
place(sin mediumnn22usingusingtrigonometric
trigonometricrelationships.
relationships.ItItisisuseful
usefultoto
note,
note, however,
however, that
that most
most image
image analysts
analysts nevernever concern
concern themselves
themselves with
with computing
computing the the
index
indexofofrefraction.
refraction.