Magnetic circuits

Magnetic Materials
All the materials in this universe may be
classified either magnetic or non-magnetic.
Materials that are attracted by a magnet are
called magnetic materials. Examples of magnetic
materials include iron, cobalt, nickel, steel, etc.
Materials that are not attracted by magnets are
called non-magnetic materials. Examples of
non-magnetic materials include rubber, plastic,
feather, paper, mica, gold, silver, leather, etc.
 Magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic Materials
Iron, nickel, cobalt, and
their alloys
attracted by magnets
Provide an easy path for
magnetic flux

Nonmagnetic materials
such as plastic, wood,
and glass
Have no effect on the field
 Magnetic field
A magnetic field is defined as the space
surrounding a permanent magnet or
electromagnet where the electric field is felt
by other magnet or magnetic material.
Magnetic fields can be created either by
placing, a permanent magnet or by
supplying current through a solenoid. Latter is
electromagnet.
Nature of magnetic field
Magnetic Flux or Magnetic Lines of Force
There are numbers of magnetic lines of
force in a magnetic field, and these lines
of force are collectively called magnetic
flux.
They always form complete closed
loops.
The lines of force of magnetic field are
radiated from the north (N) pole to the
south (S) pole.
Flux lines do not cross or interact to
each other.
Their density decreases with increasing
distance from the poles.
 Flux and Flux Density
In the SI system of units, magnetic flux is measured in
webers (Wb) and is represented using the symbol .
The number of flux lines per unit area is called flux
density (B). Flux density is measured in teslas (T).
Its magnitude is determined by the following equation:
 Magnetic Circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed
loop paths containing a magnetic flux.
The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or
electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic
cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron
There may be air gaps or other materials in the path.
Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently
channel magnetic fields in many devices such
as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays,
lifting electromagnets, galvanometers etc.
Magnetic Circuit
 Magneto Motive Force
The magnetic pressure, which sets up the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit
is called Magnetomotive Force. The SI unit of MMF is Ampere-turn (AT).

The MMF for an inductive coil is expressed as

F=NI
Where, N = Number of turns of coil ; I = Current in the coil

The MMF is also expressed as

F= R
Where, R = reluctance; = magnetic flux

The another way of MMF expression is

F=Hl

Where, H = magnetic field strength; l = length of the substance

 Magnetic circuit

Series Magnetic Circuit Parallel Magnetic Circuit

 Ohms Law for magnetic circuits
Ohms law in case of magnetic circuits can be stated as, the
Magnetic flux () developed in the circuit is directly
proportional to Magnetic motive force (m.m.f. = N.i).
The relation is similar to Ohms law and can be formed by
replacing Electro motive force (e.m.f.) with m.m.f. and Electric
Current (i) with Magnetic Flux.
The relation can be expressed as follows:-
= N.I / R
Where R is the reluctance of the circuit
 Magnetic reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used
in the analysis of magnetic circuits. It is analogous
to resistance in an electrical circuit.
In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric
current to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic
field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic
reluctance.
The unit for magnetic reluctance is inverse henry, H1.
It is expressed as;

R=F/

Where; F = MMF, = Magnetic flux

 Magnetic Field Strength
Magnetic Field Strength (H) also called Magnetizing
Force is defined as the magnetomotive
force (MMF or Fm) divided by the mean length (l) of
the path taken by the magnetic flux.

H = IN / = Fm /
Magnetic Field Strength is measured in amperes per metre
(A/m)
B H Relationship
 B H Relationship
As H increases positively, B follows the red dotted curve from origin to saturation
point a, indicated by Bmax.
As H decreases to zero, the flux follows the curve ab and drops to Br which
indicates the residual induction.
When H starts in the negative direction, the core will lose its magnetism, as
shown by following the curve from point b to c. The amount of magnetizing force
required to completely demagnetize the core is called the coercive force and is
designated as Hc in the figure.
As the peak of the negative cycle is approached, the flux follows the portion of
the curve labeled cd. Point Bmax represents saturation in the opposite direction
from Bmax . From point d, the H value decreases to point e, which corresponds to
a zero magnetizing force. Flux Br still remains in the core.
A coercive force of +Hc is required to reduce the core magnetization to zero. As
the magnetic force continues to increase in the positive direction, the portion of
the loop from point f to a is completed. The periodic reversal of the magnetizing
force causes the core flux to repeatedly trace out the hysteresis loop.
Core with air gap
 Core with air gap
Air is a kind of insulator to electricity as well as
magnetism. Like air, it can be as paint, gas, vacuum,
aluminium etc. to prevent core saturation
The air gap in magnetic circuit increases reluctance to the
magnetic flux density.
The air gap is mostly used in applications where
the magnetic saturation concludes as a high risk as
magnetic saturation causes loss of inductance, increasing
of current, power loss in the circuit. In Power
transformers sharp increase in magnetizing current results
core overload and a 'runaway' situation.
 Core with air gap
The problem which an air gap solves in a core is the excessive flux produced
by a high level of current in the windings.
Transferring the previous analogy, suppose that your windings produce
an MMF of 12 ampere turns and that your magnetic core (your 'load') has
a reluctance of two ampere-turns per weber.
A flux of six webers is too much; you can only tolerate four webers.
To solve the problem you just add in a 'resistor' (call it a 'reluctor') of one
ampere-turn per weber.
Now you have a total reluctance of three ampere-turns per weber 'in circuit'
so that now four webers is all that the MMF can push round the core.
the role of this extra reluctor is taken on by the air gap. Its task is to increase
the reluctance of the core so that less flux flows for any given level of MMF.
Its reluctance depends only on its length, lg, and cross sectional area, Ae; and
both of those parameters can be made very stable.
 Magnetic permeability
It is the ability of a material to respond to how much electromagnetic flux it
can support to pass through itself within an applied electromagnetic field.
In other word magnetic permeability of a material is the degree of
magnetization capability.
Magnetic permeability is expressed in .
The relation between B and H is directly proportional, i.e. B H.

B = H
where, is the proportional constant of that material or medium and it is
termed as magnetic permeability. Hence we can write,

=B/H
So, in other word magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic
flux density (B) of a material to its electro-magnetizing force (H).
The unit of Electromagnetic Permeability is Henry/meter or Newton/sq-
ampere.
 Permeability

Permeability in Free Space

Permeability in free pace is denoted as 0. Its value is 4 10- 7 H/m. This value
of permeability is taken as standard value that is treated as permeability
constant.

Permeability of another Medium or Substance

Permeability of another medium or substance is denoted as only. Relative
permeability is the ratio of permeability of any substance to that of free space
and it is denoted as r, i.e.

r = / 0
So, permeability of any medium or material is

= r 0
 Hysteresis with DC
The hysteresis loop discussed above is related to DC.
The magnetic flux at any instant is given by
=B.A (time-varying).
The instantaneous value of emf induced in the coil due to time varying
flux is given by,

E=N*d/dt = N*dB.A/dt = NAdB/dt

The magnetizing force is given by,

H=NI/L Or, I =HL/N

The power or the rate of expenditure of energy in maintaining the current
I against the entire loop is given by,
P=EI (watt) = NAdB/dt.HL/N = AHdB.L/dt
 Hysteresis with DC
Energy spent in small fraction of time is given by,

dw = p. dt = AHLdB joule
Hence, the total energy spent in a cycle of magnetization is given by,

W = AL H.dB; H.dB = Area of the loop

And,

A.L= volume of iron core

Energy spent per cycle per unit volume = H.dB = Area of the loop

Hysteresis loop measures the energy dissipated due to hysteresis which appears
in the form of heat and raises the temperature of that portion of the core. This
energy loss is known as a hysteresis loop.
 Hysteresis with AC
If an electromagnet is
excited with AC voltage, the
iron core will go through
magnetic reversal twice in a
cycle of AC excitation.
Let us assume that the iron
core is completely
demagnetized in the
beginning.
Fig shows the waveform of
magnetizing current I
 Hysteresis with AC
The power loss due to hysteresis effect is given by
Ph=1.6 Bmfv (watts)
Where,
Bm= maximum value of B in core
f = frequency of exciting current
v = volume of iron core
= Steinmetz constant
The area of the hysteresis loop also indicates the
energy loss due to hysteresis.
 Eddy Current loss
As the magnitude of magnetic flux in the core is time varying in nature, emf will
induce in the core and some current will circulate within the core. The circulating
current is known as eddy current.
This current produces heat within the core. The power loss due to this
phenomenon is known as eddy current loss.
In order to reduce eddy current loss in practical applications, high resistivity is
achieved by adding silicon to the steel and the path length of eddy current is
increased by dividing up the solid core into laminations along the flow of flux
laminations lightly insulated by varnish from the adjoining ones.
Eddy current loss is given by,

Pe= k B2mf2t2v (watts)

Where,
Bm= maximum value of B in core; f = frequency of exciting current; v = volume of
iron core; t = thickness of each lamination; k = constant depending upon the
nature of the core
 Faraday's law of induction
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how
a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF).
1st law:
Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be
induced in the coil. This emf induced is called induced emf and if the
conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit
and this current is called induced current.
2nd law:
It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of
change of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the
product of a number of turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.
 Statically induced EMF

The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux linked with it (change of flux
is the increase or decrease in current) is called statically induced emf. In
statically induced emf, the conductor is stationary with respect to the
magnetic field. The transformer is an example of statically induced emf. Here
the windings are stationary, the magnetic field is moving around the
conductor and produces the emf.
Suppose, magnetic flux changes from an initial value of 1to the final value
of 2in time of t sec then,
Induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage
=N*(2-1)/t volts
E=N*d/dt
The direction of statically induced emf is given by Lenzs law.
 Dynamically induced EMF
The emf induced in a coil
due to the relative motion of
the conductor and the
magnetic field is called
dynamically induced emf.
Generator works on the
principle of dynamically
induced emf in the
conductors which are
housed in a revolving
armature lying within the
magnetic field.
 Induced emf in conductor
Let l be the length of conductor lying within the magnetic field, v be the
velocity of the conductor and B be magnetic flux density.
Distance moved in small time = v.dt = dx
Area swept by conductor in dt = l.dx
Flux cut by the conductor in dt = l.dx.B
Rate of change in flux = l.dx.B/dt = l.vdt.B/dt = Blv
E = Blv
If the conductor moves making an angle with the direction of magnetic
flux, then the emf generated is given by,
E = B.l.v sin
Where,
vsin = component of v in the direction perpendicular of magnetic flux
 Force on the current carrying conductor

Whenever the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field

a force will develop on the conductor. The magnitude of force is given
by
F = BIL (N)
Where,
B = magnetic flux density
I = current passing through the conductor
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field
The direction of the force will be perpendicular to both the direction
of magnetic flux and current and is given by Flemings left-hand rule.
Flemings Left hand and Right hand rules

Left hand rule Right hand rule

(Motors) (Generators)