Chapter 2new

By
H. A. Suud
Semiconductor Devices
Since the advent of semiconductor power switches, the control of
voltage, current, power, and frequency has become cost-effective.
The precision of control has been enhanced by the use of integrated
circuits, microprocessors, and VLSI circuits in control circuits.
Some of the popular power-switching devices, their symbols, and
their capabilities are described below.
Power Diode:
It is a PN device.
When its anode potential is higher than the cathode potential by its
on-state drop, the device turns on and conducts current.
The device on-state voltage drop is typically 0.7 V.
When the device is reverse biased, i.e., the anode is less positive
than the cathode, the device turns off and goes into blocking mode.
H. A. Suud ECE4402 Spring 2015 2

The current through the diode goes to zero and then reverses and
then resurfaces to zero during the turn-off mode, as shown in Fig.
The reversal of current occurs because the reverse bias leads to the
reverse recovery of charge in the device.
The minimum time taken for the device to recover its reverse
voltage blocking capability is trr , and the reverse recovery charge
contained in the diode is Qrr , shown as the area during the reverse
current flow.
The diode does not have forward voltage blocking capability
beyond its on-state drop.
The power diode is available in ratings of kA and kV, and its
switching frequency is usually limited to line frequency.
Power diodes are used in line rectifier applications.
For fast switching applications, fast-recovery diodes with reverse
recovery times in tens of nanoseconds with ratings of several 100 A,
at several 100 V, but with a higher on-state drop of 2 to 3 V are
available.
They are usually used in fast-switching rectifiers with voltages higher
than 60 to 100 V and in inverter applications.
In case of low-voltage switching applications of less than 60 to 100
V, Schottky diodes are used.
They have on-state drop of 0.3 V, thus enabling higher efficiency in
power conversion compared to the fast-recovery diodes and power
diodes.
Power Transistor:
It is a three-element device, with NPN being the more prevalent.
The device can be turned on and off with base current.
The device schematic and its characteristics are shown in Fig below.
The preferred mode of operation in power circuits is that the

transistor be in quasi-saturation, i.e. at knee operating point during
its conduction state.
Then, can be pulled back into non-conduction state in shorter time.

This device does not have reverse voltage blocking capability.
The maximum available rating at present for the device is 1000 A,
1400 V with on-state drop of 2 V.
Its switching frequency is very high for the bipolar power transistor,
with a lower current gain of 4 to 10, and much in the region of 2 to 6
kHz for Darling power transistors with current gain of 100 to 200 A.
These devices are not used very much in newer products.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) or Thyristor:
It is a four-element (PNPN) device with three junctions.
The power electronics revolution started with the invention of this
device in 1956.
Its symbol and characteristics are shown in Fig below.
The device is turned on with a current signal to the gate, and when
the device is forward biased, i.e. , the anode is at a higher potential
than the cathode by the on-state drop of 1 to 3 V.
The device can be turned off only by reverse biasing the device, i.e.,
reversing the voltage across its anode and cathode.
During the reverse biasing, known as commutation, the device
behaves like a diode.
A negative voltage has to be maintained across the device for a
period greater than the reverse recovery time for it to recover its
forward blocking voltage capability.

The device can also block negative voltages and, beyond a certain
value, the device will break down & conduct in the reverse
direction.
This device is very similar to a power diode but has the capability to
hold off its conduction in the forward-biased mode until the gate
signal is injected.
Its maximum ratings are 6 to 8 kA, 12 kV, with on-state voltage
drop ranging from 1 to 3 V.
The device is used only in HVDC rectifiers and inverters and in large
motor drives with ratings higher than 30 MW.
The switching frequency of the device is very limited, to 300 to 400
Hz, and the auxiliary circuit for its turn-off has caused other power
devices to displace this device in all applications other than those
mentioned.
Variations of the device are plentiful: some that belong to this
family are the following:
Inverter-grade SCR
Light-activated thyristors
Asymmetrical SCR
Reverse-conducting thyristor
MOS-controlled thyristor
Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO).
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO):
It is a thyristor device with gate turn-on and gate turn-off capability.
Its symbol and characteristics are shown in Fig below.

The device comes with maximum ratings of 6 kA, 6 kV, with an on-
state voltage drop of 2 to 3 V.
The maximum switching frequency is 1 kHz, and the device is used
mainly in high-power inverters.
MOSFET:
This device is a class of field-effect transistor requiring lower gate
voltages for turn-on and turn-off and capable of higher switching
frequency in the range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
The device is available at 100 A at 100 - 200 V & at 10 A at 1000 V.
The device behaves like a resistor when in conduction and therefore
can be used as a current sensor, thus eliminating one sensor device
in a drive system.
The device always comes with an anti-parallel body diode,
sometimes referred to as a parasitic diode, that is not ultra-fast and
has a higher voltage drop.

The device symbol for an N-channel MOSFET and its characteristics
are shown in Fig below.
The device has no reverse voltage blocking capability.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT):
It is a three-element device with the desirable characteristics of a
MOSFET from the viewpoint of gating, transistor in conduction, and
SCR/GTO in reverse voltage blocking capability.
Its symbol is given in Fig below.

The currently available ratings are 1.2 kA at 3.3 kV and 0.6 kA at 6.6
kV, with on-state voltage drop of 5 V occur in the future.
The switching frequency is usually around 20 kHz for many of the
devices, and its utilization at high power is at low frequency,
because of switching loss and electromagnetic-interference
concerns.
Power semiconductor devices Power switches
isw
ON or OFF
+ vsw
=0
isw = 0
Ploss = vsw isw = 0
+ vsw
Losses ideally ZERO !

Switching of Power Devices:
The understanding of device switching in transient is of importance
in the design of the converter as it relates to its losses, efficiency of
the converter and the motor drive system, and thermal
management of the power converter package.
The transient switching of the devices during turn-on and turn-off is
illustrated in this section by considering a generic device.

Ideal current and voltage sources and power devices are assumed
for this illustration. The circuit for illustration is shown Fig above.
The switching device is gated on and the current in the device
increases from zero to IS after a turn-on delay time td 1 .
The current transfers from the diode linearly in time tre , which is
the rise time of the current.
During this rise time, the diode is conducting, and therefore the
voltage across the switching device is the source voltage, VS .
When the current is completely transferred from the diode to the
switching device, the voltage drop across the diode rises from zero
to the source voltage and the voltage falls at the same time across
the switching device in t fv .
The sum of the current rise and voltage fall times is the turn-on
switching transient time; note that, during this time, the device
losses are very high.

During the conduction, the voltage across the device is its on-state
voltage drop and the power loss is smaller.
When the gating signal goes to the turn-off condition, the switching
device responds with a turn-off delay time of td 2 .
Then, the device voltage rises to VS in t rv which forward biases
the diode and initiates the current transfer from the switching
device to the diode.
The current transfer is completed in t fc .
The sum of the voltage rise time across the switching device and
current fall time is the turn-off transient time, during which the
device loss is very high.
From this illustration, the losses in the switching device are
approximately derived as follows:
a) Conduction energy loss. E sc IsVon t on td 2 t s1 td 1
b) Sum of turn-on and turn-off energy loss. E sl 0.5Vs Is t s1 t s 2

E sl E sc
c) Total power loss Psw fc E sl E sc
ton toff
1
d) Switching frequency. fc
ton toff
Note that the power loss is averaged over a period of the switching
period. and total power loss is the sum of the conduction and
switching losses in the switching device.
Similarly, the power losses in the diode can be derived.
The switching losses are proportional to the switching frequency
and to the product of the source voltage and load current.
Note that, in general, the switching times are much smaller than the
conduction time, and therefore the switching losses are less than (or
at most equal to) the conduction loss in the switching device.
Low switching frequency is preferred because of lower switching
losses but contributes to poor power quality.

Higher switching frequency enables voltage and current waveform
shaping and reduces the distortion but invariably is followed by
higher switching losses.
The switching illustrated is known as hard switching: current and
voltage transitions occur in the device at full source voltage and
current, respectively, during turn-on and turn-off periods.
Resonant and soft-switching circuits enable switching device
transitions at zero voltage and current, reducing or almost
eliminating the switching losses, but these circuits are not
economical at present and so are not considered in motor-drive
applications.
The power switches are used in the circuits to control energy flow
from source to load and vice versa.
This is known as static power conversion.

Analysis Methods
Switching Power Electronics: But,
Linear Regulator Pdiss v x io 0
Pout

Pin
v o io

vin io
Control Vx to achieve desired
output voltage in the range of 0 vo

to Vin simple and accurate vin
@Vin 15v ,Vo 5v 33%

Consider switching power converters,
Adding Filter

1. Method of Assumed States:
Semiconductor switches are typically not fully controllable.
Lets consider how to analyze a switching circuit in time domain
Simple Rectifier
Diodes: Uncontrolled
Cannot sustain positive voltage (will turn ON)
Cannot sustain negative current (will turn OFF)

The method of assumed states allows us to figure out which
un/semi-controlled switches are on as a function of time.
1. Assume a state (on/off) for all un/semi-controlled switches.
2. Calculate voltages and currents in the system (linear circuit
theory).
3. See if any switch conditions are violated (e.g., on diode has
negative current and off diode has positive voltage.)
4. If no violations, then done, else if violation assume a new set of
states go back to step 1.
If VS sin t 0 and we assume diode off: vd 0 , since this is not
possible, diode must be on during this condition.
If VS sin t 0 and we assume diode on: id 0 , since this is not
possible diode must be off during this condition.
Note: Check current if assumed ON,
Check voltage if assumed OFF

VS sin t 0 diode ON : VS sin t 0 diode OFF :
Very simple example but principle works in general.

2. Periodic Steady State (PSS):
In power electronics we are often interested in the PSS.
In PSS the system returns to the same point at the end of cycle
(beginning matches end), so things are operating cyclically.

We are often interested in the PSS condition because that is how
the system operates in the absence of disturbances.
Also we can guarantee certain facts which help us analyze the
system.
In PSS, di
V L
dt
di
L
dt
di
sin ce 0 V 0
dt
Therefore, Inductor in PSS VL 0
Capacitor in PSS IC 0
This is similar to the notation that an inductor is short at dc and a
capacitor is an open at dc
The P.S.S. conditions are useful for analysis.
Consider adding a filter to smooth the ripple current in our simple
rectifier:
If we assume diode is always on in P.S.S., then:

KVL: VS sin t VL vo 0
Take average VS sin t 0 in PSS
VL 0 in PSS
v0 0

If diode were always on vo 0
For some part of the time vo 0 , therefore, io must be 0 (part of
the time).
We know diode must turn off during part of cycle by the method of
assumed states.
In PSS vo 0 , therefore, vo v x
The negative portion of the cycle drives the inductor current to zero:

Single-Phase DBR

Single-Phase Full Wave Rectifier
Another type of uncontrolled rectifier is SPFWR or bridge rectifier,
this type of rectifier is shown in Fig below.
During the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, D1 and D2 are
forward biased, the current IL flow through D1 , load and D2 .
During the negative half cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and
supply current IL to the load.
Thus at any time, there are two diode in series with the load.
The peak inverse voltage is Vm .
The average and RMS voltages are:
2Vm
VO

Vm
VRMS
2
Single-Phase Phase Controller Rectifiers

Three-Phase Tyristor Converters
Three-phase converters provide higher average output voltage in
addition the frequency of the ripples on the output voltage is
higher compared to that of single-phase converters.
Therefore, for large power DC loads, those converters are used.
The various types of three-phase controlled converters are:
Three-phase half wave converter
Three-phase semi converter
Three-phase full wave converter
Three-phase dual converter
The advantages of three-phase over single-phase converters are:
a. The ripple frequency of the converter output voltage is higher,
thus, the filtering requirements for smoothing out the load
current are less.
b. The load current is mostly continuous, thus, load performance is
superior.
When SCR1 is fired at t 30 , the phase voltage VAN appears
across the load until SCR2 is fired at t 150 .
When SCR2 is fired, SCR1 is reverse biased b/c of the line-to-line
voltage VAB is negative.
Hence SCR1 is turned off.
The phase voltage VBN appears across the load until SCR3 is fired
at t 270 .
When SCR3 is fired
at t 270
line-to-line voltage
is VBC negative VCN &
SCR2 is turned off
and phase voltage
appears across the
load.

DC Choppers

DC-AC Inverters
In Fig, it can be seen that the traction motor requires AC input.
The main source of power is the battery which is a DC source.
The DC output of the battery is bucked or boosted according to the
requirement and then converted into AC using a DC-AC inverter.
The function of an inverter is to change a DC input voltage to a
symmetric AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency.
The output voltage waveforms
of ideal inverters should be
sinusoidal.
However, the waveforms of
practical inverters are non-
sinusoidal and contain certain
harmonics.

Principle of Operation of Half Bridge DC-AC Inverter (R Load)
The analysis of the DC-AC inverters is
done taking into account the following
assumptions and conventions:
The current entering node a in Fig is
considered to be positive
The switches S1 & S2 are unidirectional,
i.e. they conduct current in one direction.
The current through S1 is denoted as i1 &
the current through S2 is i2 .
The switching sequence is so design (Fig) that switch S1 is on for the
time duration 0 t T1 and the switch S2 for T1 t T2 .
When the switch S1 is turned on, the instantaneous voltage across
the load is:
Vin
vo
2
When the switch S2 is only turned on, the voltage across the load is:
Vin
vo
2
The waveform of the output voltage and the switch currents for a
resistive load is shown below.

The r.m.s value of output voltage vo ,rms is given by:
12
1 V T1
2
Vin
vo ,rms dt
in
T1 0 4 2
The instantaneous output voltage vo is rectangular in shape (Fig).
Thus can be expressed in Fourier series as:
a0
vo an cos nt bn sin nt
2 n1
Due to the quarter wave symmetry along the time axis (Fig), the
values of a0 and an are zero. The value of bn is given by:

2 0 Vin Vin 2Vin
bn sin nt d t 2 sin nt d t
2 2 0 2 n
Substituting value of bn gives:

2Vin
vo sin nt
n1,3,5,... n
The current through the resistor ( iL ) is given by:

1 2Vin
iL sin nt
n1,3,5,... R n
For n=1, v o gives the r.m.s value of the fundamental component as:
2Vin
v o1 0.45Vin
2
Half Bridge DC-AC Inverter with L Load and R-L Load
The DC-AC converter with inductive
load is shown in the Fig.
For an inductive load, the load
current cannot change immediately
with the output voltage.
The working of the DC-AC inverter
with inductive load is as follows:

Case 1
In the time interval 0 t T1 the S1 is
on and the current flows through the
inductor from points a to b.
When the switch S1 is turned off (case 1)
at t T1, the load current would continue
to flow through the capacitor C and
2
diode D2 until the current falls to zero, as
shown in the Figure 5.
Case 2
Similarly when S2 is turned off t T2 , the
current would continue to flow through
the diode D1 and the capacitor C2 until
the current falls to zero, as of Figure 6.

When diodes D1 and D2 conduct, energy is fed back to the dc
source and these diodes are known as feedback diodes. These
diodes are also known ad freewheeling diodes.
The current for purely inductive load is given by:

1 2Vin
iL sin nt
n1,3,5,... nL n 2
Similarly, for the RL load; instantaneous load current is obtained as:

2Vin
iL sin nt n
n R 2 nL
2
n1,3,5,...
Where nL
n tan 1

R
The instantaneous voltage across RL load
and the instantaneous current through it
are shown in Fig.

Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R Load
A single phase bridge DC-AC inverter is shown in Fig.
The analysis of the single phase DC-AC inverters is done taking into
account following assumptions and conventions:
The current entering node a in Fig is considered to be positive
The switches S1 , S2 , S3 & S4 are unidirectional, i.e. they conduct
current in one direction.

When the switches S1 and S2 are turned on simultaneously for a
duration 0 t T1 , the input voltage Vin appears across the load
and the current flows from point a to b.
If the switches S3 and S4 are turned on for a duration T1 t T2 ,
the voltage across the load is reversed and the current through the
load flows from point b to a.
The voltage and current waveforms across the resistive load are
shown in Figure 9.
Instantaneous output voltage can be expressed in Fourier series:
a0
vo an cos nt bn sin nt
2 n1
Due to the quarter wave symmetry along the x-axis (Fig), the values
of a0 and an are zero. The value of bn is obtained as:

2 0 4Vin
bn Vin sin nt d t Vin sin nt d t
2
2 0
n
Substituting value of bn gives:

4Vin
vo sin nt
n1,3,5,... n
The instantaneous current through the resistive load is given by:

1 4Vin
iL sin nt
n1,3,5,... R n
Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R-L Load

The function of the inverter in case of RL load can be explained as
follows:
Case 1:
At time t T1 , the switches S1 and S2 are turned off and the pair
of switches S3 and S4 are turned on.
Due to the inductive load, the current through the load ( iL ) will not
change its direction at t T1 and will continue to flow through the
load from point a to b, through the diodes D3 and D4 , till it becomes
zero as shown in Figure 10a.
Once, iL 0 , S3 & S4 start conducting and the load current iL builds
up in opposite direction (point b to a).
Case 2:
At time t T2 , the switches S1 and S2 are turned on and the pair
of switches S3 and S4 are turned off.
As case 1, the current takes time to become zero and diode D1 &
D2 conduct as long as its non-zero.
This condition is shown in Figure 10b.

The instantaneous current through the RL load is given by:

4Vin
iL sin nt n
n R 2 nL
2
n1,3,5,...
Where, nL
n tan1
R
In this Fig the conduction is divided
into 4 distinct zones.
In Zone I the diode D1 & D2 conduct
until iL 0 .
Once, iL 0 , S1 and S2 conduct and
it is marked as Zone II.
At t T2 , the diodes D3 & D4 conduct
and this is marked as Zone III.
Finally, in Zone IV the switches S and
3
S4 conduct.
Three Phase DC-AC Inverters
Three phase inverters are normally used for high power
applications. The advantages of a three phase inverter are:
The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends on the
switching rate of the switches and hence can be varied over a wide
range.
The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by changing the
output phase sequence of the inverter.
The ac output voltage can be controlled by varying the dc link voltage.
The general configuration of
a three phase DC-AC inverter
is shown in Fig.
Two types of control signals
can be applied to the
switches:
0
180 conduction
0
120 conduction
180-Degree Conduction with Star Connected Resistive Load
The configuration of the three phase inverter with star connected
resistive load is shown in Fig. The following convention is followed:
A current leaving a node point a, b or c and entering the neutral point n
is assumed to be positive.
All the three resistances are equal, Ra Rb Rc R .

0
In this mode of operation each switch conducts for 180 .
Hence, at any instant of time three switches remain on.
When S1 is on, the terminal a gets connected to the positive
terminal of input DC source.
Similarly, when S4 is on, terminal a gets connected to the negative
terminal of input DC source.
There are six possible modes of operation in a cycle and each mode
is of 600 duration and the explanation of each mode is as follows:
Mode 1:
In this mode the switches S5 , S6 and S1 are turned on for time
interval 0 t 3 .
As a result of this the terminals a and c are connected to the
positive terminal of the input DC source and the terminal b is
connected to the negative terminal of the DC source.
The current flow through Ra , Rb & Rc is shown in Figure 3a.

The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3b.
The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 3b is:

R 3R
Req R
2 2
The current i delivered by the DC input source is:
Vin 2 Vin
i
Req 3 R
The currents ia , ib and ic are:
1 Vin
ia ic
3R
Keeping the current convention in mind,
2 Vin
ib i
3R
Having determined the currents through each branch, the voltage
across each branch is:
Vin 2Vin
van vcn iaR ; vbn ibR
3 3
Mode 2:
interval 3 t 2. 3 .
The current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 4a
and Figure 4b respectively.

Following the reasoning given for mode 1, the currents through each
branch and the voltage drops are given by:
1 Vin 2 Vin
ib i c ; ia
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
vbn vcn ; van
3 3
Mode 3:
interval 2 3 t . .
The current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 5a
and Figure 5b respectively.
1 Vin 2V
ia ib ; ic in
3R 3R
V 2V
van vbn in ; vcn in
3 3
For modes 4, 5 and 6 the equivalent circuits will be same as modes
1, 2 and 3 respectively.
The voltages and currents for each mode are: .

Mode 4 1 Vin 2 Vin
ia ic ; ib
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
van vcn ; vbn
3 3
Mode 5 1 Vin 2 Vin
ib i c ; ia
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
vbn vcn ; van
3 3
1 Vin 2 Vin
Mode 6 ia ib ; ic
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
van vbn ; vcn
3 3
The plots of the phase voltages ( van , vbn and vcn ) and the currents
( ia , ib and ic ) are shown in Figure 6.
Having known the phase voltages, the line voltages can also be
determined as:
vab van vbn
vbc vbn vcn
vca vcn van
The plots of line voltages are also shown in Figure 6 and the phase
and line voltages can be expressed in terms of Fourier series as:

4Vin n n
van 1 sin 2 sin 6 sin nt
n1,3,5,... 3n

4Vin n n 2n
vbn 1 sin 2 sin 6 sin nt 3
n1,3,5,... 3n

4Vin n n 4n
vcn 1 sin 2 sin 6 sin nt 3
n1,3,5,... 3n

4Vin n n n
vab van vbn sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 6

4Vin n n n
vbc vbn vcn sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 2

4Vin n n 7n
vca vcn van sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 6

AC-AC Converters
A power electronic AC-AC converter, in generic form, accepts electric
power from one system and converts it for delivery to another ac
system with waveforms of different amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
They may be single-or three-phase types depending on their power
ratings.
The AC-AC converters employed to vary the RMS voltage across the
load at constant frequency are known as ac voltage controllers or
ac regulators.
The voltage control is accomplished either by:
phase control under natural commutation using pairs of SCRs or triacs
by on|off control under forced commutation using fully controlled self-
commutated switches such as Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOs), power
transistors, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs), MOS-controlled
Thyristors (MCTs), etc. .
Single-Phase AC-AC Voltage Controller
The basic power circuit of a single-phase AC-AC voltage controller, as
shown in Fig, is composed of a pair of SCRs connected back-to-back
(also known as inverse-parallel or antiparallel) between the ac
supply and the load.
This connection provides a

bidirectional full-wave
symmetrical control.
With phase control, the switches conduct the load current for a
chosen period of each input cycle of voltage and with on-off control
the switches connect the load either for a few cycles of input
voltage and disconnect it for the next few cycles (integral cycle
control) or the switches are turned on and off several times within
alternate half-cycles of input voltage (ac chopper or PWM ac voltage
controller).
Phase-Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller
For a full-wave, symmetrical phase control, the SCRs T1 and T2 in
the above Fig are gated at and , respectively,
From the zero crossing of the input voltage and by varying , the
power flow to the load is controlled through voltage control in
alternate half-cycles.
As long as one SCR is carrying current, the other SCR remains
reverse-biased by the voltage drop across the conducting SCR.
Operation with R-load:
Fig below shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the
single-phase bidirectional phase-controlled ac voltage controller
with resistive load.
The output voltage and current waveforms have half-wave
symmetry and thus no dc component.

If v s 2 VS sint is the source voltage,
then the rms output voltage with T1
triggered at can be found from the
half-wave symmetry as:
12
1 2 2
VO 2VS sin t d t

sin2
12
VS 1
2
Note that VO can be varied from VS to 0
by varying a from 0 to .
The rms value of load current:
VO
IO
R

The input power factor:
PO VO sin2
12
1
VA VS 2
The average SCR current:
1
2VS sint d t
2 R
IA ,SCR
As each SCR carries half the line current,
the RMS current in each SCR is:
IO ,SCR IO 2
Operation with RL-load:
Fig shows the voltage and current waveforms for the controller.
Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR T1 may not
fall to zero at t when the input voltage goes negative and
may continue until t , the extinction angle, as shown.
The conduction angle

of the SCR depends on the firing delay angle & the load impedance
angle . The expression for the load current IO t when conducting
from to can be derived by solving the relevant Kirchhoff voltage
equation:
2V
iO t sin t sin e
t tan
; t
Z
Where
Z R L
2 2
tan1 L R
The angle when current iO falls to zero, can be determined from
the following transcendental equation obtained by putting I 0
O
sin sin e
tan
The rms output voltage:

12
1 2 2
VO 2VS sin t d t

sin2 sin2
12
VS

2 2
The RMS SCR current can be obtained:
12
1 2
IO ,SCR io d t
2
The RMS load current
IO 2 IO ,SCR
The average value of SCR current
1
IO ,SCR
2 i d t
O

Gating Signal Requirements
For the inverse parallel SCRs, the gating signals of SCRs must be
isolated from one another as there is no common cathode.
For R-load, each SCR stops conducting at
the end of each halfcycle and under this
condition, single short pulses may be used
for gating as shown in the previous Fig.
With RL load, however, this single short
pulse gating is not suitable.
When SCR T2 is triggered t ,
SCR T1 is still conducting due to the load
inductance.
By the time the SCR T1 stops conducting
at , the gate pulse for SCR T2 has already
ceased and T2 will fail to turn on, causing
the converter to operate as a single-phase
rectifier with conduction of T1 only.
This necessitates application of a sustained gate pulse either in the
form of a continuous signal for the half-cycle period, which
increases the dissipation in SCR gate circuit and a large isolating
pluse transformer or better a train of pulses (carrier frequency
gating) to overcome these difficulties.
Operation with : If , then
sin sin 0
and
As the conduction angle cannot exceed and the load current
must pass through zero, the control range of is .
With narrow gating pulses and , only one SCR will conduct
resulting in a rectifier action as shown.
Even with a train of pulses, if , the changes in wont change
the output voltage and current but both SCRs will conduct for the
period with T1 becoming on at t and T2 at t .

0 to ), whose duration varies with the load
This dead zone (
impedance angle , is not a desirable feature in closed-loop
control schemes.
An alternative approach to the phase control with respect to the
input voltage zero crossing has been reported in which is defined
with respect to the instant when it is the load current (not the input
voltage) that reaches zero, this angle being called the hold-off angle
( ) or the control angle.
This method requires sensing the load current, which may
otherwise be required anyway in a closed-loop controller for
monitoring or control purposes.
Power Factor and Harmonics:
As in the case of phase controlled rectifiers, the important
limitations of the phase-controlled ac voltage controllers are the
poor power factor and the introduction of harmonics in the source
currents.
The input power factor depends on , and as increases, the
power factor decreases.
The harmonic distortion increases and the quality of the input
current decreases with increase of firing angle.
The variations of low-order
harmonics with the firing angle
as computed by Fourier analysis
of the voltage waveform of (with
R-load) are shown in Fig below.
Only odd harmonics exist in the
input current because of half-
wave symmetry.

Fully Controlled Three-Phase Three-Wire AC Voltage Controller
Star-Connected Load with Isolated Neutral
The analysis of operation of the full-wave controller with isolated
neutral as shown in Fig is, as mentioned, quite complicated in
comparison to that of a single-phase controller, particularly for an
RL or motor load.

As a simple example, the operation of this
controller is considered here with a simple
star-connected R-load.
The 6 SCRs are turned on in the sequence 1-
2-3-4-5-6 at 60 intervals and the gate
signals are sustained throughout the
possible conduction angle.
The output phase voltage waveforms for
30,75 & 120 for a balanced three-
phase R-load are shown in Fig.
At any interval, either three SCRs or two
SCRs, or no SCRs may be on and the
instantaneous output voltages to the load
are either line-to-neutral voltages (three
SCRs on), or one-half of the line-to-line
voltage (two SCRs on) or zero (no SCR on).
Depending on , there may be three operating modes.
Mode 1 (also known as Mode 2|3): 0 60
There are periods when three SCRs are conducting, one in each
phase for either direction and periods when just two SCRs conduct.
For example, with a 30 in Fig a, assume that at t 0 SCRsT5
and T6 are conducting, & the current through the R-load in a-phase
is zero making van 0.
At t 30 , T1 receives a gate pulse and starts conducting; T5 & T6
remain on and van VAN .
The current in T5 reaches zero at 60 , turning T5 off.
With T1 and T6 staying on, van 1 2v AB .
At 90 , T2 is turned on, the three SCRs T6 , T1 and T2 are then
conducting and van VAN .
At 120 , T6 turns off, leaving T1 and T2 , so van 1 2v AC .

Thus with the progress of firing in sequence until 60 , the
number of SCRs conducting at a particular instant alternates
between two and three.
Two SCRs, one in each phase, always conduct.
For 75 shown in Fig b, just prior to 75 , SCRs T5 and T6
were conducting and van 0 .
At 75 , T1 is turned on, T6 continues to conduct while T5 turns off
as vCN is negative; van 1 2v AB .
When T2 is turned on at 135 , T6 is turned off and van 1 2v AC .
The next SCR to turn on is T3 , which turns off T1 .
One SCR is always turned off when another is turned on in this
range of and the output is either one-half line-to-line voltage or
zero.

When none or two SCRs conduct.
For 120 (Fig c), earlier no SCRs were on and van 0 .
At 120 , SCR T1 is given a gate signal while T6 has a gate
signal already applied.
As v AB is positive, T1 and T6 are forward-biased and they begin to
conduct and van 1 2v AB .
Both T1 and T6 turn off when v AB becomes negative.
When a gate signal is given to T2 , it turns on and T1 turns on again.
For 150 , there is no period when two SCRs are conducting and
the output voltage is zero at a 150 .
Thus, the range of the firing angle control is 0 150 .
For star-connected R-load, assuming the instantaneous phase
voltages as:

v AN 2 VS sint

vBN 2 VS sin t 120
vCN 2 V sint 240
S
The expressions for the RMS output phase voltage VO can be

derived for the three modes as:
3 3
12

0 60 VO VS 1 sin2
2 4
12
1 3
60 90 VO VS
2 4

sin2 sin 2 60

5 3 3
12

90 150 VO VS
4 2 4

sin 2 60


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H. A. Suud ECE4402 Spring 2015 2

The preferred mode of operation in power circuits is that the

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The device has no reverse voltage blocking capability.

Its symbol is given in Fig below.

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Very simple example but principle works in general.

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If we assume diode is always on in P.S.S., then:

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Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R-L Load

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The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 3b is:

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This connection provides a

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The rms output voltage:

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The expressions for the RMS output phase voltage VO can be

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