Concrete Masonry 09

Concrete & Masonry
Prof Dave Hughes
Taught by lectures, tutorials, lab,

CALCRETE & design sessions
Assessed by Class test – multiple choice week
6/7 (30%)
2 hour exam - design exercises
(70%)
Left school when 16 with 7 O’Levels
Farnborough Technical College – OND Engineering (1971)
Portsmouth Polytechnic – BSc (Hons)
Portsmouth Polytechnic – BSc (Hons) (1975)
Surrey University – PhD (1982)
Portsmouth Polytechnic – BSc (Hons) (1975)
Surrey University – PhD (1982)
Bradford University (1985)
First Associate Dean (Learning & Teaching)
Mortars – conservation and new build
Introduction
To familiarise you with concrete and mortar

What are concrete & mortar?
Composite of
• Aggregate
• Binder
Gravel
Crushed Rock
Composite of
Expanded Clay
• Aggregate Sintered PFA
• Binder Blast Furnace Slag
Steel Shot
Glass
Sea shells
Recycled concrete
Portland Cement
Composite of Calcium Aluminate Cement
B-CSA-F Cement
• Aggregate Hydraulic Lime
• Binder Air Lime
Water
PFA
GGBS
Silica Fume
What is concrete?
50
40
Coarse
30 Agg
Fine Agg
% by
Binde
Volume rWater
20
Voids
10
0
What is mortar?
60
50
40
% by 30
Volume
20
10
0
Fine Binder Water Voids
Agg
What are the attractions of concrete?
• In-situ or Pre-cast
• Two states
• Range of finishes
• High compressive strength
• Can be durable
What the down-sides of concrete?
• Cement can be guaranteed but not concrete

• Low tensile strength & toughness
• Can lack durability
• Natural Hydraulic Lime is variable between
and within source
• Lime mortars are more flexible
So what are the differences between
good concrete and bad concrete?
• Application of “know-how” since the

ingredients are the same
So what are the differences between
good concrete and bad concrete?
• Application of “know-how” since the

ingredients are the same
CEMENT & LIME, COMPOSITION,

COMPACTION, CURING, COVER, CARE
Testing of concrete & mortar
• Compressive strength
• Workability
… but durability is more often the key factor
… a function of permeability and composition
… and very rarely tested for

Layout of the rest of the module
Ingredients
Fresh concrete
Hardened concrete - mechanical
Hardened concrete - permeation
Hardened concrete - durability
Mix design
Mortars
Masonry units
Design exercises
Cements and Limes
To present specifications for hydraulic cements

and hydraulic limes
To discuss their hydration and the formation of
microstructure
Terminology of Cements and Limes
SiO2 S
Al2O3 A
CaO C
Fe2O3 F
SO3 S
H20 H
Cements
Portland cement -
Tri Calcium Silicate C3S
Di Calcium Silicate C2S
Tri Calcium Aluminate C3A
Tetra Calcium Aluminoferrite C4AF
History of Cements and Limes
60
50
40
C3 S
30
C2 S
20
10
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Manufacture of Portland Cement
H2O ↑ CO2 ↑ Clinker

Add Gypsum
Pre-heat 850oC 1400oC
Grinding & Grinding

Quarrying Blending
Limestone
Clay/Shale
Manufacture of Lime
850oC –
Quarrying Crushing 1000oC
Limestone Slaking
CO2 ↑
Reaction
Lime, Portland Cement & Pozzolanas
%age by wt
NHL PC GGBS PFA CSF
S 15 21 37 48 92
A 1 7 11 26 1
F 1 3 1 10 1
C 60 66 40 2 0
Alk 1 1 1 4 3
CH C3S AS glass AS glass S glass
CaCO3 C2S
C2S C3A
C2AS C4AF
Cement & BS EN 197-1:2000
Composition
CEM I Portland cement

CEM II Portland-composite cement
CEM III Blast furnace cement
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement
CEM V Composite cement
CEM I Portland cement

95 - 100% clinker
CEM II Portland-composite cement

65 - 94% clinker plus
6 - 35% GGBS, PFA, limestone dust
6 - 10% CSF
6 - 35% mix of any or all
CEM III Blast furnace cement

36 - 95% GGBS
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement

11 - 55% CSF + PFA
CEM V Composite cement

18 - 50% GGBS + 18 - 50% PFA
Strength
Strength Compressive Strength (MPa) Initial Set
Class Early strength Standard strength (Mins)
2 days7 days 28 days
32.5 N ≥ 16 ≥ 32.5 ≤ 52.5
≥ 75
32.5 R ≥ 10
42.5 N ≥ 10 ≥ 42.5 ≤ 62.5
≥ 60
42.5 R ≥ 20
52.5 N ≥ 20 ≥ 52.5 ≥
45
Lime & BS EN 459-1:2010
NHL - from a single source of argillaceous or

siliceous limestone with no additions
HL - from a combination of unspecified sources,
may contain PC, GGBS, CSF, natural
pozzolana
FL – same as HL but must specify contents
Lime & BS EN 459-1:2001
Strength
Strength Strength (MPa)
Class 7 days 28 days
NHL/FL 1 0.5 - 3
NHL/HL/FL 2 2-7
NHL/HL/FL 3.5 3.5 - 10
NHL/HL/FL 5 ≥ 2 5 - 15
All limes to be sound ≤ 2 mm

Setting in 1 hour – 14 days!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Basic hydration - text book view
Heat of hydration (J/g)

C3S - 502; C2S - 251; C3A - 837; C4AF - 419
Basic hydration
Basic hydration
C3A + H —> _C3AH6 _

C3A + H + C SH2—> C6A S3H32
Basic hydration
_ _
C3A + H + C SH2—> C6A S3H32
C3S + H —> CSH + CH
Basic hydration
_ _
C6A S3H32 —> C4A SH18
C3A +
_ H —> C4AH19
C4A SH18 & C4AH19 known as AFm
Basic hydration
Slower long term reactions
CH + S —> CSH (pozzolanic reaction)

Physical Structure Development
Water
Vapour
Capillary
Adsorbed
Interlayer
Combined
Pore Structure
1 - 5 mm Entrapped air
100 µ m - 1 mm Entrained air
0.01 µ m - 15 µ m Capillary voids
< 0.01 µ m Interlayer or gel voids
Pore Structure Development
1 d PFA
1 d OPC
6 m OPC
6 m PFA
ityP
o
rs
1 10 100 1000
Pore size (nm)
Types of PC
LHPC
SRPC
White
RHPC - (CEM 1R)
Types of PC
LHPC Low C3S, high C2S

SRPC ≤ 3.5% C3A
White No or trace C4AF
RHPC - (CEM 1R) High C3S or high SSA
CALCRETE
Read all of section on cements

Aggregates
To identify key properties as they affect the

properties of concrete
To describe methods of their determination
Types of aggregates by density
Heavyweight
(4000 - 8500 kg/m3)
Normal
(2300 - 2500 kg/m3)
Lightweight
(350 - 1800 kg/m3)
Heavyweight Magnetite
Iron shot
Normal Lead shot
Lightweight
Heavyweight Natural Crushed rock

Sand & gravel
Normal
Lightweight Artificial Air cooled slag

Broken brick
Heavyweight Natural Pumice

Expanded
clay or shale
Normal
Artificial Furnace clinker
Lightweight Foamed slag
Sintered PFA
Strength
Concrete 30 - 80 MPa
Aggregate 70 - 350 MPa
Factors affecting workability of
concrete
Water content
Aggregate type and grading
Mix proportions
Cement fineness
Admixtures
Oven dry
Porosity
Absorption
or porosity Air dry
Total
moisture
content Saturated
surface dry
Free
moisture
content
Moist
Aggregate Type
Shape
Rounded
Irregular
Angular
Flaky
Elongated
Flaky and elongated
Aggregate Type
Texture
Glassy
Smooth
Granular
Rough
Crystalline
Honeycombed
Aggregate Grading
Maximum size
Continuous grading
Aggregate Grading
% age Continuous
passing
Gap
Sieve Size
Sieve Analysis
Sieve Wt ret % ret Cum % ret Cum % pass
5.00 0 0 0 100
2.36 32 16 16 84
1.18 40 20 36 64
0.60 42 21 57 43
0.30 46 23 80 20
0.15 32 16 96 4
Pan 8 4 100 0
Total 200
BS classification - Fine aggregate
Sieve Overall C M F
5.00 89 - 100
2.36 60 - 100 60 - 100 65 - 100 80 - 100
1.18 30 - 100 30 - 90 45 - 100 70 - 100
0.60 15 - 100 15 - 54 25 - 80 55 - 100
0.30 5 - 70 5 - 40 5 - 48 5 - 70
0.15 0 - 15*
* 20% for crushed rock sands
BS classification - Fine
100
80
60
40
20
0
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 5
BS classification - Medium
100
80
60
40
20
0
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 5
BS classification - Coarse
100
80
60
40
20
0
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 5
BS classification - Coarse aggregate
Sieve 20 mm SS 10 mm SS
37.5 100
20.0 85 - 100
14.0 100
10.0 0 - 25 85 - 100
5.0 0-5 0 - 25
2.36 0-5
Impurities
Chlorides
Clay
Organic matter
Unsound particles
CALCRETE
Read aggregate section for winning and

processing and deleterious materials
Revision
0.18
A 0.16
0.14
Cumulative Pore Volume (ml/ gm)

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Mean Pore Diameter (µm)
Concrete - Fresh state
To identify the factors which control properties

of concrete in the fresh state
To be able to modify those properties by use of
admixtures
To be able to perform standard workability tests
Key properties
• Fluidity
Workability
• Compactability
• Cohesiveness
Workability is the amount of internal work

required to achieve full compaction
Resistance to flow
Friction & Interference Water lubricated

Criteria for robust workability tests
• Simple equipment
• Easily & quickly performed
• Appropriate for range of workability sought
• Repeatable
Slump
• Truncated cone
• Three equal layers 300 mm
• Rod each layer 25 times
• Scrape off the surface
200 mm
Slump
slump cone
rod
concrete
Slump
Ruler
Slump
Slump
Normal range of slump 50 - 100 mm

Medium workability only
Compacting Factor
• Two cones
• Drop through into cylinder
• Weigh W1
• Fully compact and fill up
• Weigh W2
Compacting Factor
CF = W1 / W2
Normal range 0.70 - 0.95

Low workability with zero
slump
VB
• Slump in cylinder
• Apply standard vibration
Normal range 4 -35 seconds
noi t ar bi V
Very Low workability
Flow Table
• For mortars
• Compact in 2 layers
Flow
• 15 jolts, 1 per second
Typically 17 cm though no
standard
Key factors
Free water content (FWC)

Aggregate & cement fineness (grading)
Aggregate shape and texture
Aggregate moisture state
Proportions of fine to coarse aggregate
Presence of PFA or CSF
Temperature and time
Key factors
Presence of PFA or CSF

Admixtures
• Plasticiser
• Super-plasticiser
• Retarder
• Accelerator
Choice of workability
Level Slump CF Use
V Low 0.78 Roads heavy vibration

Low 25 -50 0.85 Roads light vibration
Medium 75 Mass & rc construction
High 125 Piling and dense steel
V High Self-levelling concrete
Practical considerations
• Bleeding
• Bleeding
• Plastic settlement
• Bleeding
• Plastic shrinkage
• Bleeding
• Curing
• Curing
Strength Permeability Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration Efficiency of curing

• Bleeding
• Curing
• Thermal cracking
Hardened concrete - mechanical
To describe the factors affecting strength

To be able to undertake standard strength tests
To describe the factors affecting moisture related
movements
Concrete - Strength
See CALCRETE for details
Most specified by compressive strength
• 100 mm cubes, steel moulds, compacted in
2 layers, 20oC water cure, 28 days, standard
loading rate
Some by indirect tension (flexure or split cylinder)

Labcrete - Realcrete
• curing
• shape
Applied stress
Induced stress
• curing
• shape
Failure cones
of restraint
Strength
UK Europe & USA

1 2
h/w ratio
Factors affecting strength
Properties of materials
Intrinsic
Mix proportions
Age
Factors affecting strength
Intrinsic
Production related Compaction
External environment
Cement
Aggregates
Water
Cement -
fineness
Cement
Aggregates
Water
Mix proportions
Water/Cement ratio
Coarse/fine aggregate ratio
Water/Cement ratio
Strength
w/c ratio
Water/Cement ratio
Strength In practice then there is a

limit to how low the w/c can
go.
But w/c is the sole factor for

given conditions
w/c ratio
80
Age 70
60
Strength
50
High
40 Low
Pozz
30
20
10
0
1 10 100 1000
Age
Compaction
1% voids reduces strength by some 5%
Vital to compact until air no longer present but

don’t over-vibrate and segregate mix
Deformation in concrete
Short term
Long term
Applied stress
Environmental factors
Deformation in Concrete
Function of Stiffness
Shrinkage
Creep
“Elastic” behaviour
Tangent
Initial Secant
Stress
tangent
Principally related to
strength
Strain
Shrinkage
Creep
Factors affecting drying shrinkage
Aggregate
w/c ratio
Size
Humidity
Typical values 0 - 1000 µ ε

Shrinkage
Creep
Factors affecting creep
Same as for shrinkage plus

Initial moisture content
Applied stress
Storage temperature
Typical values 0 - 1400 µ ε

CALCRETE
Hardened Concrete for revision and exercises

Hardened concrete - permeation
To differentiate between diffusion and

permeability
To relate these to microstructure
Permeation
Permeability is the ease of flow of a liquid as a
result of a pressure difference (eg flow through
dam)
Diffusion is the ease of flow of a species as a
result of a concentration difference (eg sulphates
flowing from groundwater)
Sorptivity is the uptake of water by capilliary
action in unsaturated concrete or mortar
Permeation
Factors affecting permeation
Porosity
Pore size distribution
Inter-connectivity of pores
Tortuosity
CALCRETE
See Durability for an alternative explanation

So what are the factors that affect
Porosity
Pore size distribution
Inter-connectivity of pores
w/c ratio
Age
Pozzolanas
1 d PFA
1 d OPC
6 m OPC
Porosity
6 m PFA
1 10 100 1000
Pore size (nm)
Covercrete and Heartcrete
H
Covercrete and Heartcrete
Reinforcing
steel Aggressive
agents
H
CALCRETE
Read Durability - Permeability and Pore Structure

Hardened concrete - durability
To recognise some of the major durability

problems facing concrete
To identify means of combating them by reference
to appropriate microstructures
Major durability problems
Corrosion of reinforcement
Sulphate attack
Frost attack
Alkali silica reaction
Protection of reinforcement
Correct cover
High quality covercrete
High alkalinity
Carbonation

CH + CO2 —> CaCO3 + H
Carbonation
Depth
Curing, cement
content, rh
w/c, CO2, temp
Period of exposure
Carbonation corrosion
O2
Fe2O3.H2O
Fe(OH)2
Fe++ 2OH--
O2
H2O
Fe
Metal 2e
Anode Cathode
Chloride corrosion
Marine aggregates
De-icing salt
Sea spray
CaCl2 - accelerator
Chloride corrosion
Marine aggregates Chlorides

De-icing salt
Free in solution
Sea spray
Physically absorbed
CaCl2 - accelerator Chemically bound
Chloride corrosion
Cl-/OH- >0.6 Fe++ +2Cl- = FeCl2
FeCl2 + 2H2O = Fe(OH)2 +2HCl
Cl-
Fe++ OH--
Cl2, O2
H2O
Metal Fe
2e
Anode Cathode
Corrosion control
• Permeation properties
• Cover
• Chloride binding capacity
Binder content
Binder type
• Curing
Sulphate attack
_ _
AFm + CH + S + H —> C6A S3H32
_
Na2SO4 + CH + H —> C_SH2 + 2NaOH
MgSO + CH + H —> C S H + Mg(OH)
4 2 2
MgSO4 + CSH + H —> C S H2 + Mg(OH)2 + SH

Solutions
Low C3A
Permeation properties
CH binding (PFA, GGBS, CSF)
Frost attack
Frost attack
Hydraulic pressure
Osmotic pressure
Ice
Water
Solutions
Drainage
Permeation
Air entrainment
Air entrainment
Air entrainment
Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
High alkali levels

Reactive silica
Water
High alkali levels NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Reactive silica
Water Na2O equivalent > 0.6%
= Na2O + 0.658 K20

High alkali levels Amorphous silica, eg opal,

volcanic glass
Reactive silica
Water
Cherts, siliceous limestone,
flint
High alkali levels

Reactive silica
Water > 75% relative humidity
Temperature
Water
AS gel
Gel + water =
Alkali expansion
ASR cracking
Pop-out Map cracking

Solutions
Non reactive aggregates

Low alkali cement
Use of PFA, GGBS, PFA
Remove water
Masonry
Prof Dave Hughes

Brick types
Clay
Calcium Silicate
Concrete
Durability of masonry
Frost
Soluble salts
Movement
Frost
Soluble salts
Soluble salts
Water is the key to durable masonry and we

must design structures and select materials
to meet such a threat
Water threat
Water threat
Walls
Freestanding wall
Retaining wall
Weepholes in Austria
Reinforced walls
Reinforced walls
Movement joints
Movement joints
Movement joints
Movement joints
Design
Material specification
BS EN 771-1
Clay
Density
<1000 kg/m3 (LD) for protected masonry
>1000 kg/m3 (HD) for un-protected

masonry
BS EN 771-1
Clay
Durability – active salts (%)
Na & K Mg
S0 No limits No limits
S1 0.17 0.18
S2 0.06 0.03
BS EN 771-1
Clay
Durability – Frost
Exposure
F0 Passive
F1 Moderate
F2 Severe
BS EN 771-2
Calcium Silicate
Strength
7, 7.5, 10, 15, 20 ……50, 60, 75

Mortars
Definition
A mixture of sand, other fine

aggregate and a binding agent as a
jointing medium or as a plaster,
render or screed on a surface
Sands
Principal quality factors

• Average particle size
• Range of sizes
• Shape
• Impurities, particularly clay
Sands
Impurities
• Annex D of BS EN 13139:2002
Concrete vs Mortar sands
100
80
60
% passing
40
20
0
0.1 1 10
Sieve Size (mm)
Premise of mix design
Voids between aggregate particles are

filled with binder
Mortar designations – BS5628
By way of example
Unrendered external wall, high

saturation
• 1: 3 to 4 if using PC:sand mortar
For a finer sand tend towards 1:3 rather than 1:4

to achieve desired workability, strength and
durability
New advances in silo mortar
Low energy for sustainability
Binder phase
Sand drying
Binder phase
Portland cement is high embodied energy
Hydraulic lime is high embodied energy

Sand drying
Kilns are inefficient
Lime has potential
CaO + H20 Ca(OH)2

So what binder could be added to

Ca(OH)2 which is low energy?
ggbs
Bradford research
Context - strength
80
70
60
Strength (MPa)
50 M12? NHL
OPC
40
1:2
30 1:3
20
10
0
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sand:binder ratio
Bradford research
Context - strength
15
NHL
FL
Strength (MPa)
10
NHL
OPC
1:2
1:3
5
0
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sand:binder ratio
Bradford research
Context - sorptivity
3.0
NHL
FL 2.5
Sorptivity (mm / min
0.5
)
2.0
NHL
OPC
1.5
1:2
1:3
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sand:binder ratio
Bradford research
Context - wvp
NHL 3.0E-11
FL 2.5E-11
s Pa-1)
2.0E-11
NHL
-2 -1
OPC
WVP (kg m
1.5E-11
1:2
1:3
1.0E-11
5.0E-12
0.0E+00
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sand:binder ratio
Bradford research
0.25
0.2
0.15 PC
NHL 3.5
1:2:9
0.1 1:3:12
(%
)ityP
o
rs
0.05
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Pore Size (microns)
Realcrete in mortars?
Bricks
Differing capacity to absorb water
Mortars
Differing capacity to retain water
1890
1880
1870
1860
OD Density (kg/m )
3
1850
1840
1830
1820
1810
1800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.5
Root time (min )
30%
25%
Porosity
20%
15%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.5
Root time (min )
Comp Strength
3.0
2.5
2.0
Mortar
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Sorptivity
Sorp of Substrate
1.2
1.0
Sorp of Mortar
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Sorp of Substrate
Substrate Comp strength Flex strength

(MPa) (MPa)
Steel 4.7 1.3
OD Ibstock 8.1 2.5
OD Blue 5.6 2.1
Sat Ibstock 4.6 1.4
Sat Blue 4.4 1.6
Binder – NHL 3.5

The End of knowledge acquisition
From next week – design sessions to
develop understanding of design and
application of knowledge

Concrete Masonry 09

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Concrete & Masonry

Prof Dave Hughes

Taught by lectures, tutorials, lab,

To familiarise you with concrete and mortar

• Cement can be guaranteed but not concrete

• Application of “know-how” since the

• Application of “know-how” since the

CEMENT & LIME, COMPOSITION,

… but durability is more often the key factor

… a function of permeability and composition

… and very rarely tested for

To present specifications for hydraulic cements

H2O ↑ CO2 ↑ Clinker

Grinding & Grinding

CEM I Portland cement

CEM I Portland cement

CEM II Portland-composite cement

CEM III Blast furnace cement

CEM IV Pozzolanic cement

CEM V Composite cement

NHL - from a single source of argillaceous or

All limes to be sound ≤ 2 mm

Heat of hydration (J/g)

C3A + H —> _C3AH6 _

C2S + H —> CSH + CH

CH + S —> CSH (pozzolanic reaction)

LHPC Low C3S, high C2S

Read all of section on cements

To identify key properties as they affect the

Heavyweight Natural Crushed rock

Lightweight Artificial Air cooled slag

Heavyweight Natural Pumice

Read aggregate section for winning and

Cumulative Pore Volume (ml/ gm)

To identify the factors which control properties

Workability is the amount of internal work

Friction & Interference Water lubricated

Normal range of slump 50 - 100 mm

Normal range 0.70 - 0.95

Normal range 4 -35 seconds

Free water content (FWC)

Presence of PFA or CSF

Level Slump CF Use

V Low 0.78 Roads heavy vibration

Strength Permeability Degree of hydration

Degree of hydration Efficiency of curing

To describe the factors affecting strength

Some by indirect tension (flexure or split cylinder)

UK Europe & USA

Strength In practice then there is a

But w/c is the sole factor for

1% voids reduces strength by some 5%

Vital to compact until air no longer present but

Typical values 0 - 1000 µ ε

Same as for shrinkage plus

Typical values 0 - 1400 µ ε

Hardened Concrete for revision and exercises

To differentiate between diffusion and

See Durability for an alternative explanation

Read Durability - Permeability and Pore Structure

To recognise some of the major durability

C3S + H —> CSH + CH

w/c, CO2, temp