Exploratory (Qualitative)

Methods

Dr. Mary Wolfinbarger

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Exploratory Research
 Use when don’t understand issues
very well
 Examples: faculty response to
merit pay, employee responses to
advertising

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Exploratory Research
 Helps to define constructs which
are multifaceted
 Examples: customer satisfaction,
quality, value

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Exploratory Research
 It is typically recommended that
exploratory (“qualitative” or
“humanistic”) research precede
other research
 It often “stands alone”
 May follow other types of research

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Exploratory Research
 Qualitative “purists” argue their
research may be less “precise,” but
it increases understanding, allows
for complexity and depth
 Quantitative “purists” find
qualitative research to be “fuzzy”
and “subjective”

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Exploratory Research
 The appropriate research tool
depends on the information
required, time and budget
 You be the judge.

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Exploratory Research
 Focus Group--most common
exploratory technique
“A loosely structured interview
conducted by a trained moderator
among a small number of
informants simultaneously.”

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
 6-12 informants in a group
 1 1/2 –2 hour session
 1-way mirror/client may sit behind
 relaxed, “living room” environment
 qualified moderator
 conversation may be video and/or
audiotaped OR notes may be taken
 focus group guide

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
– Example: Questions for PSSI decision
makers
 1. In general, how confident were
you in the outcome of your college’s
PSSI recommendations? (Probe.)
 2. Did you and other members of the
committee read the PSSI document?

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
– Do you feel that your committee
followed the intent of the document?
 3. How did you ensure accuracy in the
application?
 4. How did your committee evaluate the
applications and decide who would be
recommended for PSSIs? [For instance,
did members evaluate applications
separately before meeting, or did you
decide together in a meeting? ].

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
– Were any of the three areas -- teaching research,
and service -- considered to be more important
than the others?
5. Do you believe it is appropriate to make acceptable
teaching a requirement for the award? [If so,] how
was teaching evaluated?
 How were research and service evaluated?
 How did you evaluate the application when a
candidate claimed to be meritorious in all three
areas? [Etc….. ]

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
– The conversation is organic
– Moderators are trained to get
participants to explain answers fully
– Challenge “easy” and “socially
desirable” answers
– “Replicate” results across focus groups
and segments

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
Advantages of Focus Groups
– Quick and Dirty
– Flexibility in covering topics
– May uncover unanticipated ideas that
are important
– Can define constructs of importance
– Gives “flesh” and connectedness to real
consumers/people

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
The connectedness comes from
“verbatims:”

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
Internal Marketing Study
Example: Theme: using employees in
company ads
“I worked at Ford when I started to see the
commercials. I knew one of the people [in the
advertisements]. I thought it was good. Ford hit a
low when I was there. The quality campaign and
the slogan “Quality is Job 1” was initially laughed
at at Ford, but the company stayed with it and
made it stick. They did incredible things, built up
the stock and everything. I always thought we
should do it” (Image Tech manager).

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
Internal Marketing Study
Example: Theme: portraying
organization accurately
[From the report] Managers, scientists, and
administrative personnel complained that
Useful Science advertisements implied that
employees were “empowered” and
encouraged to take risks, yet Useful Science
was perceived widely as a conservative,
bottom-line-oriented company that desired its
employees to be risk-averse:

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
Internal Marketing Study:

[The verbatims]
I like to think it’s this way [at Useful Science], but
researchers aren’t this empowered (Useful Science
scientist).
The bottom line is you get rewarded for the dollars
that you bring to the company, not for taking
chances (Useful Science scientist).
When we decided we wanted people who would be
big in assuming risks, we made sure we called it
“prudent risks,” whatever the hell that is (Useful
Science manager).

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More on usage of verbatims:
Online shopping study: Theme
Freedom and Control
Outcomes Desired: Freedom and Control
Moderator: What is the single most important factor in
your satisfaction with shopping online?
Answer: The freedom to shop when & where I want…so
easy & convenient. (Online)

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Theme: Freedom and Control
Outcomes Desired: Freedom and
Control

“You probably saw the large ad in the

newspapers for HomeGrocer…I live alone and
recently I had pneumonia. I think I would have
starved to death if I hadn’t had access to that. It
will enable me, I’m 8i1 now, to live at home
alone a lot longer because when I get home at
night, I’m not going to walk to the grocery store
to buy a half gallon of milk.” (Offline)

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 Theme from online study:
Selection
 Increased Stock
“The [retailer has] all these things in the catalog and
when you go in the bricks and mortar stores they are
never in stock. Online it’s always there because it
comes directly out of their warehouses.” (Offline)
 However, selection on web is good;
selection at individual sites is often
lacking
“You know the selection [offered by the seller] is
really huge, but you go to find something [on their
web site and] you are given like 16 and you know
they make 50…you think, well gosh, why aren’t the
other 35 there?” (Offline)

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Information Search
 A major motive for using net, both
for surfing and shopping
“I like getting information. I like to find out
everything about everything before I make a
decision… And it’s hard to get for a lot products,
before it was impossible, now you can.” (Offline)
 Consumers want to find relevant
information quickly
 Information increases freedom and
control in online shopping
environments
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Theme in online shopping study:
Lack of Sociality
 “Freedom. 90% of hassle is dealing with
people. I need them, but not as much as
they think I need them.” (Online)
 Also note linkage: lack of people online
associated with freedom and control.

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Exploratory Research/
Focus Group
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
– Results dependent on skill of moderator
in running the group and analysis
– Groupthink
– Small samples

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Online Focus Groups
Focus Groups: 8-12 participants
talking about an issue/product
How is online different?
 No body language
 Harder to read emotions
 Again, sampling issues
 Software controls for faster
responders
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Online Focus Groups
 Ability to show websites to
participants
 Clients “lurk” in “chat room”; can
send questions to moderator
 Transcripts produced automatically

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Online Focus Groups
How is online different?
Disadvantages:
 No body language
 Sampling issues (who is more likely
to participate?)
 Can last up to 2 hours – can cover
about 2/3 of what would cover 3D
 Difficult to probe
 Sometimes asynchronous
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Online Focus Groups
Advantages
 Ability to show websites to participants
 Clients “lurk” in “chat room”; can send
questions to moderator
 Transcripts produced automatically
 Participants can be geographically
diverse
 Software controls for faster responders,
so more even participation

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Online Focus Groups
 Individual responses can be tracked
(can’t in offline or “3-D” focus
group)
 Many people are more open when
NOT face to face
 Friendlier, more humorous online

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Exploratory
In-depth Interview
– An unstructured personal interview
which uses extensive probing to get a
respondent to talk freely
– Purpose: to probe informants’
motivations, feelings, beliefs

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Exploratory/
In-depth Interview
Description:
– Lasts about an hour
– Interviewer creates relaxed, open
environment
– Wording of questions and order are
determined by flow of conversation
– Interview transcripts are analyzed for
themes and connections between themes

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Exploratory/
In-depth Interview
– Example 1: Study of Consumer
Perceptions of Earthquake Risk

Asked questions about earthquake

experiences; knowledge, folk theories
and beliefs about earthquakes;
earthquake preparedness

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Exploratory
In-depth Interview
– Example2: Skydiving study:

– Questions involved why and how

skydivers got started, their perceptions
of risk, why they continued to enjoy
skydiving, managing impressions to
outsiders
(The study also involved participant
observation)

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Exploratory
In-depth Interview
Example2: Skydiving study
Themes in Study:
– Communitas
– Transcendental Experience
– Identity Construction

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Exploratory
In-depth Interview

What about these topics might might lead

to a researcher choosing in-depth
interviewing?

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Exploratory/
In-depth Interview
Advantages of In-Depth Interviewing
– Tendency to have a freer exchange
– Can probe potentially complex
motivations and behavior
– Easier to attach a particular response to
a respondent

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Exploratory/
In-depth Interview
General disadvantages of in-depth
Interviewing
– Qualified interviewers are expensive
– Length and expense of interview often
leads to small sample
– Subjectivity and “fuzziness”

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Exploratory/In-Depth
Interview
The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique
– Participants are told the topic of discussion
– They are asked to bring 10-15
pictures/images which represent their
feelings and reactions to the topic
– They are asked to compare and contrast
pictures
– They are asked what else might be in the
picture if the frame is widened

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Exploratory/In-Depth
Interview
The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation
Technique
– They are asked to describe a mini-movie
which describes how they feel about the
topic of interest
Example: Topic: How Managers
Approach Ill-Structured Problems

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 Exploratory/In-Depth
Interview
“It would start with me screaming down the street at the thought of
solving another problem…”No! I don’t want to do it!” I want to run
away from it. Before you go there, you just think it’s dark and
scary and unpleasant….But it’s not so much that you’re afraid you
won’t be able to solve the problem. It’s just …the work and the
intensity of the effort required. But then I force myself to enter the
land of the problem, going inside the pyramid. This is the
incubator…Once you get in there, you’re no longer afraid because
you’re so wrapped up into it and there’s a sense of enjoyment in
actually doing it when you go through the process of gestation for
a couple of days….all kinds of screaming into this place so they’re
all like thought rays and working rays and stress rays. And then
you pop out of the other side and instead of running, screaming,
fearful, you’re running, screaming, happy.” (Research director of a
major consulting company.)

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Exploratory/In-Depth
Interview
Last step: “The Digital Image” The
consumer creates a summary image of
their feelings

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Exploratory/In-Depth
Interview
Zaltman’s rationale: A good deal of
thought, especially thought with
emotional content, is processed in
images and metaphors
-- typical focus group and in-depth
methods rely too heavily on verbal
stimuli

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
– An indirect form of questioning in which
an environment is created which
encourages the informant to freely
project beliefs and feelings into the
situation

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
– Methods from clinical psychology
– Ernest Dichter: father of “motivation
research” techniques in marketing in
1950s.
– Techniques used in conjunction with
focus groups and in-depth interviews

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
Some projective methods:
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A neutral stimulus (usually a line
drawing) of a situation of interest is
presented to the subject who responds
by telling/writing about what s/he
believes is going on in the picture

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
– Example 1: Rook’s analysis of hair
grooming as “ritual magic”

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Grooming Study Methodology
“Two Grooming Thematic Apperception
Test (GTAT) stimulus pictures were
selected…The two GTAT stimuli included
pictures of: (1) a young to middle-aged
woman in curlers applying make-up and
(2) a young man blow drying his hair.
These symbols were presumed to be of
near universal familiarity among the
young adult population.”

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Grooming Study Methodology
“The projective hypothesis…suggests
that respondents’ imaginative stories,
articulated in response to the pictorial
stimuli, will reveal unconscious and
other hidden aspects of their grooming
behavior.”

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Grooming Study Results
Three themes:
– Breaking Away
– Vocational Placement and Performance
– Intimacy Aspirations

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Grooming Study Results
Breaking Away
Verbatim:
“Jim is supposed to stay home and study
tonight, but he’s getting ready go out
anyway. He’s hoping to meet some hot
chicks and wants his hair to look just
right” (male - 20)

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Grooming Study Results
Vocational Placement and Performance
“Susan is getting ready for her first
presentation and she’s very nervous. If it
goes well, maybe her boss will help with a
downpayment on a new car. (female-21)
“Joe Hearn gets up every morning at 6:30,
showers, and blow dries his hair…he is an
FBI agent and has to look sharp in his
sunglasses, or he’ll lose his job. (male-25)

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Grooming Study Results
Intimacy Aspirations
“Rhonda was amazed that the cutest guy
on the beach had walked over to her
and asked her for a date. As she was
applying her makeup, she wondered if
this was a dream. (female-20)

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Grooming Study Results
Intimacy Aspirations mixed with Vocational
Concerns
“It must already be 80 degrees, and it’s only 7
AM. By the time I finish blow drying my hair
I’ll probably need another shower…It feels
like it’s blowing 150 degrees of heat into my
face…but who cares? When I finish using
my Mighty Mite I just look so good. All the
girls in the office will want to play in my hair.
(male-26)

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Grooming Study:Conclusions
“Young adults appear quite willing to
suspend their disbeliefs about the
miraculous properties of grooming
products and procedures. Not infrequently,
the subjects described various grooming
effects that can be characterized as ritual
magic. …Respondents may not actually
believe in grooming’s mystical powers, but
they see no harm if grooming somehow
encourages Lady Luck. Another magical

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Grooming Study:Conclusions
effect ascribed to grooming flows from its
role as a psychic energizer. Grooming is
valued as a mechanism for overcoming
introversion, and some stories resonate
like tribal war chants with themes of off-to-
social-battle. These internal exhortations
focus like a mantra on confidence-building
sentiments and whip up the requisite
energy for the situation at hand.”

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
TAT Example 2: Gift-giving TAT (Sherry,
Levy & McGrath, Journal of Retailing)

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Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
A twist on the TAT:
– Ask subjects to draw cartoons and write
about the subject of interest
– Example: Roach Killer...

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 Exploratory/
Projective Techniques
Another Projective Technique:
– Shopping Lists -- Ask respondents
about the type of person who would buy
a particular group of products

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques

– Shopping Lists -- An example: Instant

Coffee in the 50s

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 Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Instructions to Subjects:
“Read the shopping list below. Try to
project yourself into the situation as far
as possible until you can more or less
characterize the woman who bought the
groceries. Then write a brief
description of her personality and
character. Whenever possible indicate
what factors influenced your judgment.”

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques

– Can you guess how the woman who

purchased the instant coffee was
viewed as compared to the one who
bought the coffee that had to be
percolated?

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Another technique: Word Association
– Subjects are asked to write down or
voice all associations to a brand name,
a product, a product category, etc.
– In “laddering,” associations are probed
for further associations

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques

– Example: BIC associations

– Are these associations consistent with
the notion of BIC perfume? BIC
pantyhose?

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Two other techniques: Sentence and
Story Completion

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 Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Story Completion Example: Department
Store Patronage Project
“A man was shopping for a business suit in his
favorite department store. After spending 45
minutes and trying several suits, he finally picked
one he liked. As he was proceeding to the
checkout counter, he was approached by the
salesman, who said, “Sir, at this time we have
higher quality suits which are on sale for the same
price. Would you like to see them?”
“What is the customer’s response? Why?

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Sentence Completion Example:
Department Store Patronage Project
A person who shops at Sears is
_____________________________________________.
A person who receives a gift certificate good for
Nordstrom’s would be
______________________________________.
J. C. Penney is most liked by ________________________.
When I think of shopping in a department store, I
______________________________________________.

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Advantage of Projective Techniques:
– They help probe consumer motivations
by enabling a subject to project their
own psychological material in a non-
threatening way

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Disadvantages?:
– Subjectivity
– Rely on analytical expertise/background
of researcher
– e.g. Rook’s analysis reflects his training
as an anthropologist

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Exploratory/Projective Techniques
Disadvantages?:
– Is the psychological material
uncovered related to the topic or to
the person?

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Writing Exploratory
Reports

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 The Report
“Although client spectators are frequently present at
group interviews and may even be prepared to
take initial action on the basis of immediate or
“topline” results, careful and deliberate analysis
remains crucial to sound qualitative research.
Just as the power and validity of th analysis are
contingent on well-run groups, so does the value
of the groups depend ultimately on skill and depth
of interpretation.”
--The Group Depth Interview, Alfred Goldman and
Susan Schwartz McDonald

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Writing the report
Part I: Introduction
 Background of research, research
objective
 Sample characteristics
 Procedures and materials used
 Cautions about limitations of
methodology

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 Writing the report
Example of limitations section:
“The reader is cautioned that the findings reported here are
qualitative, not quantitative in nature. The study was
designed to explore how respondents feel and behave
rather than to determine how many think or act in specific
ways. Therefore, the findings cannot serve as a basis for
statistical generalizations, but should instead be viewed as
working hypotheses, subject to quantitative validation.”
“Respondents constitute a small nonrandom sample of
relevant consumers and are therefore not statistically
representative of the universe from which they have been
drawn.”

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 Writing the report
 Part 2: Data Analysis

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Part 2: Data Analysis

 Tapes and transcripts may be used;

notes may be taken during the group
 Take notes at the end of each focus
group session to identify important
themes which may structure future
groups’ questions
 Don’t ignore the lone wolf --
exceptions

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Part 2: Data Analysis
 Transcripts, stories, etc. must be coded
for over-arching themes
(example-- ad/employee study): major
themes were accuracy, value-congruence
and effectiveness)
 Analysts look for connections between
themes as well (e.g. effective ads resulted
in expressions of pride in the company)

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Part 2: Data Analysis
 Fuzzy numerical qualifications may
be added, such as “many,” “few,”
“most,” “widely,” “typically,”
“occasionally”
 There are word-counting programs
which will offer more quantitative
analysis

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 Part 3: Marketing
Implications
 Suggest opportunities and limitations
Examples:
“The qualitative findings give reason for optimism about market
interest in the new product concept…We therefore
recommend that the concept be further developed and formal
executions be tested.”
“The results of the study suggest that ad version #3 is most
promising because it elicited more enthusiastic responses
and because it appears to describe situations under which
consumers actually expect to use the product...

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