ARTICLES

DEFINITE ARTICLE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

The A/An

The (SINGULAR AND PLURAL)

a) When a singular noun (animal or
thing)stands for a whole class
 Eg: The tree is known by its fruit

NOTE 1) When you want to use a plural noun i.e

trees instead of tree,then you should avoid the
article the-trees are mans best friends.

NOTE 2) The is never used before Man and

woman when these words represent the whole
class.
Eg:Man is the most intelligent of all living
ceatures
b)To denote a particular person ,thing or one
already mentioned.
Eg: I forgot the name of that fair haired girl
c) With superlatives:
Eg: This is the best biryani that i ever tasted
d) When we refer to classical books of
scriptures

eg:The Gita.
e) When referring to names of newspaper or
periodicals.
eg:The Readers Digest.
f) When referring to the names of rivers,canals,
Oceans,seas,gulfs,mountains,peaks,hills,glaciers
bays,groups of islands,straits,ocean currents,sea
channels etc.

Eg: The Ganga, The Himalayas.

g) When referring to the various geographical
imaginary lines.
eg:The Tropic of cancer ,The equator.
h) Before a proper noun only when it is qualified
by an adjective.
Eg: The great Amitabh bachchan

I) Before nouns that are unique

eg: The sun, The Earth etc.
j) When emphasis is needed to be given to a noun.
Eg: Rohan is the man of the match
k) Before comparatives as an adverb
eg:The more ones effort the greater his
success will be.

l) With ordinals:
Eg: The fifth chapter of this book is very boring.
m) With names of musical instruments
Eg: The guitar,the mouth organ,the trumpet.
A (SINGULAR)

a) Before a word beginning with a consonant to

denote one number.
Eg: a table,a rupee note etc.
b) Before a word starting with a vowel having a
consonantal sound to it.
Eg: a unit,a useful article,a university etc.
An (singular)
a) Before a word beginning with a vowel
i.e a.e.i.o.u;
Eg: an eye ,an aeroplane etc.
b) Before a word beginning with a vowel sound
even though it is starting with a consonant
Eg: an hotel,an hour,an historical monument.
 Note: With the words hotel and
historical a is also used though the more
correct form to use is an.

Omission of the articles

a) Before the two common nouns man and woman
when these nouns are used to represent mnkind or
womankind as a whole eg: Man is not immortal
b) Before a proper noun:
Eg: Mumbai is the commercial capital of India

c) When used before common nouns taken in their

Widest sense.
Eg:What kind of bird is this?
d) Before Abstract nouns:
Eg: Silence is golden

e) Before material nouns:

Eg: Gold is the king of metals.
f) Before titles preceding proper nouns:
Eg: Grand Canyon
g) Before languages:
Eg: We speak Hindi at home.

h) In many phrases in which a Transitive verb is

followed by its object.
Eg: To setfoot,to send word ,to give ear,to pay
attention etc.
i) Before names of relations,like sister ,brother etc.
Eg: sister leaves for mumbai tonight.

The is used to be used before the superlative

degree.
The is used for what has already been mentioned
The is used before races eg: The Aryans.
Exercise:

1) The Yamuna is a tributary of the Ganges.

2) Most children remain in school of the ages of
six and sixteen (preposition).
3) He saw a star shooting down towards the
earth.
 Degrees

Positive
Comparative
Superlative
KEYWORDS:

Positive degree: Comparative degree:

1) As-as 1) er-than
2) So-as 2) -
Superlative degree :

1) the_est
Regular forms
Tall-taller-tallest
Small-smaller-smallest
Y=i
1) Easy-easier-easiest
2) heavy-heavier-heaviest
Double + er
Thin thinner thinnest
Hot hotter hottest
Fat fatter fattest
Irregular forms:

Good better best

Bad worse worst
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Difficult more difficult most difficult
Type 1:

(Comparison between two people or objects)

Here only two people or two things are compared
therefore only two degrees are required
I.e positive and comparative
There is no need to change into superlative
degree.

Type 2:
Superlative -the best
Comparative-better than any other
Positive-no other as good as
Type 3:

Superlative- one of the best.

Comparative- better than many(or most) other
Positive- very few as good as
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative degree

1 ) As-as not er-than X

2)Not as-as er-than X
3)No other as-as er-than any other the est
4)Very few as-as er than many one of the est
/most other
Eg 1: Virat is as tall as Sachin-Positive

Sachin is not taller than Virat- Comparative

Superlative : X
Eg 2: Kashmira is not as fat as Rohini- Positive
Rohini is fatter than kashmira- Comparative
 Superlative: X

Eg 3: Sachin is a best batsman -Positive

Sachin is better than any other batsman-Comparative
No other batsman is as good as Sachin.
 PREPOSITIONS

A preposition is a word which is placed before a noun

or a pronoun and many indicate different things:
Prepositions denoting place:
in,at,on,into,among,against,before,behind,below,
between,beside,from,near,over,through,towards,unde
 up,within ,without,upon.

Prepositions denoting time:

on,by,in,during,after,from,at,before,behind,for,under,
Since,throughout,till,to until,with,within,upto.
Prepositions denoting possession: of ,with.
Phrase prepositions:

Are made up of more than one word

Eg: according to,fond of,in order to,because
of,instead of,on account of,in comparison to,owing
to,in lieu of etc.
Between: is used when two person is
there

Among: is used when more then two person is

there
Upon:when there is any activity on the table.
 Active and passive voice
RULES:
1) Interchange the position of subject and the
receiver object.
2) Add verb tobe in the tense of the Active verb
3) Add the past participle of the Active verb(in
some cases it may already be present in the
4) Add the preposition(Mostly by)

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

I me

She her

He him

They them
Active voice Passive voice

We us
Who whom
You you
It it
Tense Active voice Passive voice
Simple s+v1(or)s-es o+is/am/are+v3+
present form+o+c by+s+c
Simple past s+v2+o+c o+was/were+v3+
by+s+c
Simple future s+modal+v1+o+c o+modal+be+v3+
by+s+c
Present s+is/am/are+v1+ o+is/am/are+
continuous ing+o+c being+v3+by+s+c
Past s+was/were+v1+ o+was/were+
continuous ing+o+c being+v3+by+s+c

Present s+has/have+v3+o o+has/have+

perfect +c been+v3+by+s+c

Past s+had+v3+o+c o+had

perfect +been+v3+by+s+c

Future s+modal+have+v3 O+modal+have

perfect +o+c been+v3+by+s+c
 PRESENT PAST FUTURE
SIMPLE We go We went We shall go
CONTINUOUS We are We were We shall be
going going going
PERFECT We have We had We will have
gone gone gone

PERFECT We have We had We will have

CONTINUOUS been going been going been going
 Degrees
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
keywords:

Positive degree: Comparative degree:

1) As-as 1) er-than
2) So-as 2) -
 Superlative degree:
1) The-est

Superlative degree:
Regular forms:
1) Tall-taller-tallest.
2)Small smaller smallest.
 Y=i

Easy-easier easiest
heavy-heavier-heaviest
Double + er

Thin thinner thinnest

Hot hotter hottest
Fat fatter fattest
 Irregular forms:
Good better best
Bad worse worst
Beautiful more beautiful most
beautiful
Type 1:(comparison between two people
or objects)

Here only two people or two things are compared

therefore only two degrees are required
I.e positive and comparative
There is no need to change into superlative degree.
Type 2:

Superlative -the best

Comparative -better than any other
Positive- no other as good as
Type 3:

Superlative degree - one of the best

Comparative degree - better than many (or
most)other
Positive degree - very few as good as
Positive Comparative Superlative
Degree Degree Degree
As-as not er-than x
No other as-as er-than x
No other as-as er-than any other the est
Very few as-as er-than many/ one of the est
/most other
Present

A) Simple present
Eg: He goes to school.
Interrogative
Eg: Doesnt he goes to school.
 SIMPLE PRESENT
1) In this tense the verb is also in present form
2) If the subject is of singular nos then es or s is
added to the verb.
3) If the subject is of plural nos the verb remain as
it is
4) if the sentence is neg or interrogative does
with singular no.subject and do with plural
no.subject.

5) if the sent is in passive voice from then is or

are are used as to be form of the helping verb &
the main verb is used in its third form past
participle.
Q.where to use this tense

1.Indicate habit.
2.Indicate routine.
Clause Analysis
A complex sentence is made up to main clause and
a subordinate clause.
Noun clause: what ? (ask)
 Type example explanation

1) subject of where he hid his The subordinate

the verb money is a noun clause comes
mystery before the verb in
the main clause
Type Example Explanation

2) object of do you know why The subordinate

the verb the animals look noun clause
sad ? comes after the
verb in the main
clause
 Type Example Explanation

3) object of an The child tried to The subordinate

Infinitive explain what he noun clause comes
saw after an infinitive
in the main clause
 Type Example Explanation

4) object of a it all depends The subordinate

preposition how you speak noun clause comes
after a preposition
in the main clause
 Type Example Explanation
5) Complement A man can The subordinate
of a verb become what clause noun
he thinks completes the
meaning of a verb of
Incomplete prediction
 Type Example Explanation

6)
In apposition It is certain that The meaning of
to a noun or you will succeed a noun or
a pronoun pronoun in
Type Explain Explanation

main clause is
expressed by
the subordinate
noun clause.
Eg: 1) They agreed that one of them would work

Ans: They agreed: Main clause

that one of them would work- Subordinate
Noun clause object of the verb agreed in
the main clause.
Adjective clause :

It qualifies a noun or a pronoun in main clause

ask : which or who to the main clause
Q:1) One of the places that i visited was the
Buddhist temple
 ANSWER
One of the places was the Buddhist
temple -Main clause
That i visited -subordinate adjective
clause qualifying the noun places in the
main clause
Adverb clause:

It modify a verb,an adjective or another adverb.

Three types of adverb clause can be identified by
asking questions whereas the rest can be
identified with the help of subordinators.
Ask: when ,where ,how?
Type QTS Subordinator Examples

Time when when,whenever, she left

while,till,until, after she
after,before, had given
since her vote
Type QTS Subordinators Examples

Place where where,wherever He makes

friends
whereever
he goes
Type QTS Subordinators Examples

Manner how as,asif It happened

as I told to
You
Type QTS Subordinators Examples

Reason Sub as,since,because since you say

so, I must
believe it.
 Type QTS Subordinators Example

Purpose Sub so that,such that, we eat so that

In order that we may live
 Type QTS Subordinators Example

Contrast Sub though,although This would be

even though, a good place
evenif to come to
Type QTS Subordinators Example

relax,though
when the
weather
warmed
 Type QTS Subordinators Example

Condition Sub if,unless,whether If I make a

promise,
I keep it.
Type QTS Subordinators Example
Result Sub so...that,such...that He was so
(so,such_main clause happy
that-sub clause) (that he
jumped
with joy.
 Type QTS Subordinators Example

Comparison Sub as.as,so...as , He is not

than(first as, so rich(as
so-main clause he
as,than-sub clause) appears)
NOTE

The 1st seven types modify verb in main clause

The 8th type modifies the adverb in main clause
The 9th type modifies the adjective or adverb in
main clause.
Transformation of sentences
Types of transformation

1. Interchanging affirmative to Negative sentences.

2. Interchanging exclamatory to assertive sentences.
3. Interchanging interrogative to assertive sentences.
4. Remove too.
6.Use No sooner..than/As soon as
7.Remove If /unless.
8.Use Question tag.
Q.1 Interchanging affirmative to negative
sentence & vice versa

Negative Affirmative
1. Nothing except / only
nothing but / None
 Negative Affirmative

2. not allowed to/not prohibited from/

more than forbidden from..ing.
3. could not + verb failed to + verb
4. Negative adjective opposite adjective
 Negative Affirmative

5. Not only..but also As well as /both and...

6. not many few/hardly
7. not often rarely/seldom
8. never always
 Negative Affirmative

9. no one everyone
10. neither -nor both...as./as well as
11. positive degree of The comparative & super-
comparison is very lative degree is generally
affirmative
 Negative Affirmative

So.that + negation too...to+affirmation

nowhere anywhere
If + negation unless + affirmative
No sooner.than as soon as
Negative Affirmative

Couldnt unable
do ,does,did refused,hardly
Little much
Q.2 Interchanging exclamatory to assertive
sentences and vice versa

There are only two types of exclamatory

sentences
1.How..!
2.What a..!
3. How is used for pronoun(He,She)
what is used for nouns or a/an is used
Q.3 To convert exclamatory sentences to assertive
sentences we use indeed, really,truly,extremely.
4.The assertive sentence ends with fullstop while
exclamatory sentences ends with (!)
Q.4 Remove too

1.Too = also /not only..but also/as well as/both

and.
2.Too= very/extremely.
3.Too-to + negation=so that + affirmative
Q.5 Remove If/unless

Q.6 Use not only-but also

Q.7 Use no sooner-than/As soon as
Q.8 Question tag
Statement ,Auxiliary verb + subject pronoun + ?
RULES:

1. Statement is affirmative then Question

tag is negative
2. Statement is negative then Question tag
is opposite(affirmative)
3. If the sent contains an auxiliary verb,use the same
to form a Question tag.

4. If the sentence does not contain an auxiliary

verb,use do/does/did to form a Question tag.To the
above sentences do not contain an auxiliary verb so
we do/does/did.
If the verb in the sentence is a form of to
be use the same verb as an auxiliary
to form the question tag.
Imperative sentences

Eg: If it is an order the question tag is will you ?

If it is an a request the question tag is
wont you?
 Some peculiar types:

Eg: I am angry, arent I ?

Lets go to the beach, shall we?
There were many people on the road ,werent there?
Everybody has learnt the lesson ,havent they?
 Modal Auxiliaries

Two types of auxiliary verbs:

a) Primary Auxiliary and
b) Modal Auxiliary
Three types of primary auxiliary verbs:

1) to be: am,is,are,was,were.
2) to do: do,does,did.
3) to have: have,has,had
Functions of modal auxiliaries :

Can
Ability,permission
Could

Polite request Permission

Suggestion
Past tense of can
Past ability
 May

Possibility
Permission
Prayer,Wish or Curse
Offer help
 Might

Past tense of May

Remote possibility
 Will

Future tense Determination/willingness,

Polite request certainity.
Order
Invitation
 Would

Past tense of will

Polite request
Action in past
Shall Should Will
Threat Past tense of shall certainity
Prohibition Obligation
suggestion Probability
Suggestion
Condition
 Must Ought to Used to Need

Obligation Obligation Past habit Necessity

Guess Probability Existence of
Compulsion something
in past
 Dare

Courage
Challenge
Question Formation
Interrogative word Denotes
Where Place
When time
Who subject
Interrogative
word Denotes
Whom (Person)direct object
What (Thing)subordinate object
Whose Possession
Why Reason
Interrogative word Denotes

How Manner
How much Quantity
How many numbers
Which Specific things
Eg:1) Mini turned off the T.V ?

Ans: Who turned off the T.V ?

2) The end of school was a momentous
occasion
Ans: what was a momentous occasion?
 Figures of Speech

1. Simile : direct comparison

Words: so,as or like
2. Metaphor : indirect comparison
Words: as,so,like are not used
Antithesis: Words with opposite meaning

Alliteration: Sound of initial letters is repeat

Inversion : order of sent is changed
Personification: giving human quality
Repetition : words are repeated
Interrogation: A question is asked

Euphemism: A harsh fact is stated in a mild way

Climax : words are arranged in ascending order
Synecdoche: It could denote part for the whole for
the part used to signify a part of
something
Eg: The whole world is used to signify people

Apostrophe: direct address to something non-living

or dead
Paradox: opposite or contrasting ideas
Exclamation: where exclamation is used
Hyperbole: exaggerated statement

Transferred Epithet: adjective is transferred to

other word
Tautology: use of unnecessary words to express
the same idea
Onomatopoeia: sound or echo
Pun: play upon words
 Simple, Compound and Complex

Making simple sentences :

Simple sentence contains 1 subject + 1 finite verb
You may have to change from compound to
simple or complex to simple or synthesize two or
more sentence into one single simple sentence.

In all above cases the question will contain more

than one finite verb and your task while making a
simple sentence is to retain one finite verb.
The question you face is what can i do about the
other Finite verb ?

Well,the other Finite verb can be deleted if it repeat

or the following option can use:
Non finite verb like participle(ing),gerund or
infinitive (To +V) or other forms of verb like
Noun,adjective,adverb.
 By using participle

ing form or past participle en ,ed ,t

By using infinitive:( To + verb )
By using preposition with gerund or noun
gerund -ing preceeds by preposition
By using noun or phrase in apposition
By using adjective
By using adverb or adverbial phrase.
 Making Compound sentence

A Compound sentence is made of two or more co-

ordinate clause, joined by coordinator
By using cumulative coordinators:
Ideas are similar : and,both...and,as well as,not
only...but also,not as well as
By using adversative coordinators:
Ideas are opposite : but,yet,however,still.
By using alternative coordinators:
Choice : or,either/or,neither/nor.
By using illative coordinators :
Cause,reason,effect relation,so,for,therefore
Making simple to compound:

One part of the simple sentence ,which sounds

as a complete sentence should be retained as
one coordinate clause.
The other part which could be a phrase or a word
should be made into a clause by adding a
subject and a verb.
Both should be joined by using a suitable
coordinator.
 Making complex to compound:

A complex sentence has one main clause and one

or more subordinate clauses,which starts with
a subordinator
The main clause should be retained as one
coordinate clause.
The subordinate clause should be changed to a
coordinate clause by removing the
subordinator.
Both should be joined by using an appropriate
coordinator
 Making complex sentence:

Made up of one main clause and one or more

subordinate clause starts with subordinator
 Subordinators
Who,whoever,which,whichever,what,whatever,
When,whenever,where,wherever,why,while,
Whether,if,so.that,since,how,as,after,although,
before,such that,because,unless.
 Making simple to complex:

One part of simple sentence, which sounds as

complete sentence should be retained as Main
clause
The other part which could be a phrase or a word
should be made into a subordinate clause by
adding a subject or a verb.
 Making compound to complex:

A Compound sentence has two coordinate clause

join with a coordinator.
One of the coordinate clause should be named as
main clause.
The other clause should be changed into a
subordinate clause by adding a subordinator.
The coordinator should be removed.
 Basic Grammar

A verb tells about a person in state of:

Doing, being, possession
 Verbs can be classified into:

Transitive : passes over from subject to object

(action)
Intransitive: does not passes over from subject
to object
Finite verb: Action + tense
Non finite verb : Action but X tense

Types of non-finite verb:

1. Praticiple:
Present participle: verb+ing
Past participle: ed/en/t/nt/n...
 Collocation
2. Gerund: verb + ing
3. Infinitive: to + verb Eg: concrete jungle
Strong tea
Determiners

Definite: This ,may, the etc

Indefinite: Many,some,few ,much
Negative: No
Word formation

Noun form :
Adding ance, al, ty,ment,sion,tion,ence
answer should be a abstract noun
Eg: accept: acceptance
Inspire: inspiration

Adjective form: Hint:to be

Adding to a noun: al,ous,ve,ate,ful,ic,able,ly,y,ent,
arcy,ory,ant.
Verb form: verb governed by subject
HINT : to
Adverb form: adverb modifies a verb add ly
Eg: glamour : glamourly
homophones:

Sea:see
be:bee