EE394 J10 Opcont

Introduction
Synchronous generators
Input:
Mechanical power applied to the rotor shaft
Field excitation to create a magnetic field constant in
magnitude and that rotates with the rotor.
Output:
P and Q (electric signal with a given frequency for v and i)
Field
Excitation Q
1 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

Introduction
Synchronous generators
Open circuit voltage:
d
e NS E N S ERMS 4.44 K d K p fN S
dt
1
NR IR
l
A
Magneto-motive force
(mmf)
IR

Synchronous generators control
Effect of varying field excitation in synchronous generators:
When loaded there are two sources of excitation:
ac current in armature (stator)
dc current in field winding (rotor)
If the field current is enough to generate the necessary mmf,

then no magnetizing current is necessary in the armature and
the generator operates at unity power factor (Q = 0).
If the field current is not enough to generate the necessary
mmf, then the armature needs to provide the additional mmf
through a magnetizing current. Hence, it operates at an inductive
power factor and it is said to be underexcited.
If the field current is more than enough to generate the
necessary mmf, then the armature needs to provide an opposing
mmf through a magnetizing current of opposing phase. Hence, it
operates at a capacitive power factor and it is said to be
overexcited.
Synchronous generators control
Relationship between reactive power and field excitation
http://baldevchaudhary.blogspot.co
m/2009/11/what-are-v-and-
inverted-v-curves.html
The frequency depends on the rotors

speed. So frequency is controlled
through the mechanical power.
Pmec is increased to increase f
Pmec is decreased to decrease f
Field
Excitation Q

Voltage and frequency control
The simplified equivalent circuit for a generator and its output equation
is:
Q, pE
LOAD
Assumption: during short circuits or load changes E is

constant
V is the output (terminal) voltage
E.V E.V
pe sin
X X
Electric power provided to the load
XQ
E V
E
It can be found that
d
(t ) syn
dt
Generators angular frequency (Micro) Grids angular frequency
Ideally, the electrical power equals the mechanical input power.

The generators frequency depends dynamically on which, in
turn, depends on the electrical power (=input mechanical power).
So by changing the mechanical power, we can dynamically change
the frequency.
Likewise, the reactive power controls the output voltage of the

generator. When the reactive power increases the output voltage
decreases.

Droop control
It is an autonomous approach for controlling frequency and voltage
amplitude of the generator and, eventually, the microgrid.
It takes advantage that real power controls frequency and that
reactive power controls voltage
f f0 kP ( P P0 ) V V0 kQ (Q Q0 )
f V
f0 V0
P Q
P0 Q0

Droop control
Then a simple (e.g. PI) controller can be implemented. It considers
a reference voltage and a reference frequency:
If the output voltage is different, the field excitation is changed
(and, thus, changes Q and then V).
If the frequency is different, the prime mover torque is
changed (and thus, changes P and then f).
f f0 kP ( P P0 ) V V0 kQ (Q Q0 )
f V
f0 V0
P Q
P0 Q0
Operation of a generator connected to a large grid
A large grid is seen as an infinite power bus. That is, it is like a
generator in which
changes in real power do not cause changes in frequency
changes in reactive power do not originate changes in voltage
its droop control curves are horizontal lines
f V
P Q

Operator of a generator connected to a large grid
When connected to the grid, the voltage amplitude and frequency
is set by the grid.
In order to synchronize the oncoming generator, its frequency
needs to be slightly higher than that of the grid, but all other
variables need to be the same.
f V
f gen VG
fG
P Q

Operator of a generator connected to a large grid
After the generator is paralleled to the grid then its output
frequency and voltage will remain fixed and equal to the grids
frequency and voltage, respectively.
Output power is controlled by attempting a change in frequency by
controlling the prime movers torque. By commanding a decrease
in frequency, the output power will increase.
A similar approach is followed with reactive power control, by
controlling field excitation in an attempt to change output voltage.
Higher commanded f Higher power output
frequencies
Operating frequency
No load droop line
P1 P2 P
A brief summary
In ac systems, large machine inertia helps to maintain
stability.
Since frequency needs to be regulated at a precise value,
imbalances between electric and mechanical power may
make the frequency to change. In order to avoid this issue,
mechanical power applied to the generator rotor must follow
load changes. If the mechanical power cannot follow the
load alone (e.g. due to machines inertia), energy storage
must be used to compensate for the difference. This is a
situation often found in microgrids.
Reactive power is used to regulate voltage.
Droop control is an effective autonomous controller.

DC microgrids (droop control)
Consider a microturbine in a microgrid controlled by droop control.
Primary control:
vref vref , NL I T RD vref , NL vn VR / 2 VR I T ,max RD
Secondary control (voltage deviation compensation)
vref K p (vMG ,ref vMG ) Ki (vMG ,ref vMG )dt Depends on microgrid
bus voltage
vref ( vref vref , NL ) I T RD NOTE: Based on Guerrero et al Hierarchical Control
of Droop-Controlled AC and DC MicrogridsA General
V [V] Source Interface Approach Toward Standardization
400 vref,NL
390
vref VR
380 vn
370
360
Converter
rating
IT
0 IT,max
Tertiary control (associated with a grid tie):
vref K p ( I g ,ref I g ) K i ( I g ,ref I g )dt Depends on current
to or from the grid
vref ( vref vref , NL ) I T RD
Could be the input for a grid interface converter or the input for the distributed
generation sources interface. The latter applies when there is a direct
connection to a stiff grid because the stiff grid fixes the microgrid voltage. When
there is a grid outage, the tertiary control is replaced by the secondary control.
When the grid is present the secondary control is replaced by the tertiary
control. Grid interface converter NOTE: Based on Guerrero et al
V [V] Hierarchical Control of Droop-Controlled
400 AC and DC MicrogridsA General
Approach Toward Standardization
390
380 vref,NL
vref
370
360
Converter
Converter
rating
rating
Ig
-Ig,max 0 Ig,max
Secondary control
Tertiary control

GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IT IT
IL
DC bus (360 to 400 V) Voltage range to allow for power sharing and LOAD
voltage regulation using droop control
Grid interface
Set by the utility Droop slope Microturbine Microturbine
converter
company V [V] (virtual dc output
V [V] V [V]
Power resistance)
400
demand
390
Converter rating
Converter rating
380
370
Current Limit
Current Limit
360
0 0 I T 0 I T

MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL
VDC bus [V]

DC bus voltage IT,1+IT,2 = IL
400 0
390
380
370
360
IuT,1 IT,2
0
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL
VDC bus [V]
IT,1+IT,2 = IL
400 0
390
380
370
360
When the load increases, current is shared
between the two microturbines with the one with
the highest capacity providing more current to
the load IT,2
0 IuT,1

MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL
VDC bus [V] IT,1+IT,2 = IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
As the load increases, the voltage drops so
current output from the microturbines can
increase. Still, the microturbine with the highest
capacity providing more current to the load
0 IuT,1 IT,2
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL
VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
When the load increases even further the
grid needs to provide the extra current in
order to prevent voltage collapse
0 IuT,1 IT,2 Ig
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
Current from the grid can be used to reduce
the current from the microturbines and
increase the dc bus voltage (see the voltage
in the case with the same load in slide #19) Ig
0 IuT,1 IT,2
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT,1
uT IT,2
T
IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
When the load is light, extra power
being generated by the
microturbines can be injected back
to the grid (see slide # 18) IuT,1
Ig 0 IT,2
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT IuT
IL
DC bus (380 V) Primary control is combined with a secondary LOAD
control to compensate voltage deviations
Now, vref,NL can Grid interface

be adjusted with Microturbine Microturbine
converter
a vref V [V] V [V] V [V]
400
390
Converter rating
380 Converter rating

370
Current Limit
Current Limit
360
0 0 I T 0 I T
Now, vref,NL can be adjusted with a vref

MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT IuT
IL
VDC bus [V]

IT,1+IT,2 = IL
400 0
Nominal
390
380
370
360
Adjusted with vref
IuT,1 IT,2
0
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT IuT
IL
VDC bus [V] IT,1+IT,2 = IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
Notice that the currents are the same than in
the case with no secondary control (slide #18)
but now the voltage is kept at 380 V
IT,2
0 IuT,1
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
IuT IuT
IL
VDC bus [V] Notice same vref for IT,1+IT,2 = IL

both microturnines 0
400
390
380
370
360
0 IuT,1 IT,2
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT IuT
IL
VDC bus [V] Notice lower vref Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

400 than previous slide 0
390
380
370
360
Now, vref is changed in order to
control the current from or to the
grid
0 IuT,1 IT,2 Ig
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT IuT
IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
Secondary control can be used to optimize
efficiency but when optimizing efficiency the
controller may not do a proportional load
sharing because the load sharing condition of Ig
a given source may not be its optimal
operating point
0 IuT,1 IT,2
GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
GIC
Ig IuT IuT
IL

400 0
390
380
370
360
Ig 0 IuT,1IT,2
GRID
SOLAR WIND ENERGY NOTE: Slide prepared by Prof.
ARRAY TURBINE STORAGE
Dushan Boroyevich from VT
Paper: Boroyevich et al Future
GIC Electronic Power Distribution
Systems A contemplative view
Ig Is Iw Ib
IL
DC bus (360 400 V)
Voltage range to allow for power sharing and
LOAD
voltage regulation using the droop control
Grid interface Solar Wind Battery storage

Set by the utility Droop slope
converter converter converter converter
company (virtual dc output
V [V] V [V] V [V] V [V]
Power resistance)
400
demand Ibcsoc
390
Converter rating
Converter rating
Converter rating
Converter rating
380
Operating range
370
360 Actual
MPPT Ibdsoc
Actual
MPPT
0 Ig 0 Is 0 Iw 0 Ib

In the presence of constant-power loads, regulators in source converters
cannot use PI controllers. From a static perspective, regulators designed
for constant-power loads will make the source converter output
characteristic to look like MPP trackers.
Battery interfaces have different characteristic depending on the state of
charge of the batteries. For example, at the float voltage, the battery may
take no current (if the state of charge is 100 %) or may take some current
if the state of charge is less than 100 %. Droop controllers without
secondary controls cannot be used if batteries are directly connected to
the microgrid main bus. Microturbine with Battery storage
Constant Power Load converter
V [V] V [V]
Ibcsoc
Converter rating
Operating range
Constant
Power Ibdsoc
Output
IT
0 0 Ib
GRID
SOLAR WIND ENERGY NOTE: Slide prepared by Prof.
ARRAY TURBINE STORAGE
Dushan Boroyevich from VT
Paper: Boroyevich et al Future
GIC Electronic Power Distribution
Systems A contemplative view
Ig Is Iw Ib
IL
DC bus 360 400 V LOAD
VDC bus [V] Iw+IIws+IIgsw+I

+Ig0=
bs= IL
400 0
390
380
370
360
Ig Ib 0 Iw IIwIswIww IIbsIIss IIsg Ig

DC GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
Ig IuT IuT
IL
DC bus (380 V) Voltage is kept fixed by the stiff grid so no voltage LOAD
regulation is necessary (but it is not possible to
have batteries directly connected to the main bus)
With a stiff grid
Grid interface
there is no limit Microturbine Microturbine
converter
to Ig V [V] V [V] V [V]
400
390
380
370
Current Limit
Current Limit
360
0 0 I T 0 I T
Ig is regulated by adjusting vref

DC GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
Ig IuT IuT
IL
400 0
390
380
370
360
IuT,1 Ig
0 IT,2
DC GRID
MICRO- MICRO-
TURBINE TURBINE
Ig IuT IuT
IL
400 0
390
380
370
360
Ig 0 IuT,1IT,2
AC microgrids revisited (droop control)
Sources with a dc output or an ac output with a frequency different from
that of the microgrid main bus need to use an inverter to be integrated
into an ac microgrid. When implementing droop control, the P- and Q-E
droop regulators are used to emulate the inertia of an ac machine.
Issues when implementing conventional droop control in ac systems with
inverters:
Droop current-sharing methods are affected by harmonic content created by
non-linear loads. These issues can be solved by distorting the voltage signal
intentionally which leads to further issues.
Frequency is dependent on load levels in the same way that voltage levels
depend on load levels. Also, frequency goals for two inverters with different
capacity may be different. Frequency deviations dependant on load levels
may lead to loss of synchronization when attempting to connect the microgrid
directly to a main grid. Hence, it is only applicable to islanded operation and
makes transition into grid connected operation complicated.
In islanded mode there is both frequency and voltage deviations leading to
tradeoffs inherent to droop control in islanded mode.
Secondary controls have been proposed in order to solve these issues
without the need for communication links.
Now secondary control
depends on microgrid
bus voltage and
frequency
* GP ( s)( P P*)
E E * GQ ( s )(Q Q*)
- GP(s) and GQ(s) represent
PI or P controllers.
- *, E*, P* and Q* are
reference signals, so when
P=P*, =* and when
Q=Q*, E=E*
Now tertiary control

depends on real and
reactive power flow from
or to the grid
NOTE: Figure from Guerrero et al Hierarchical

Control of Droop-Controlled AC and DC
MicrogridsA General Approach Toward
Standardization

EE394 J10 Opcont

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Introduction

1 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

2 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

If the field current is enough to generate the necessary mmf,

The frequency depends on the rotors

4 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

Assumption: during short circuits or load changes E is

Electric power provided to the load

Ideally, the electrical power equals the mechanical input power.

Likewise, the reactive power controls the output voltage of the

6 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

7 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

9 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

10 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

12 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

15 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

16 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

VDC bus [V]

18 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

VDC bus [V] IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

Now, vref,NL can Grid interface

380 Converter rating

23 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

VDC bus [V]

VDC bus [V] IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Notice same vref for IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Notice lower vref Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

VDC bus [V] Ig+IT,1+IT,2 = IL

Grid interface Solar Wind Battery storage

30 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

VDC bus [V] Iw+IIws+IIgsw+I

Ig Ib 0 Iw IIwIswIww IIbsIIss IIsg Ig

33 Alexis Kwasinski, 2012

Now tertiary control

NOTE: Figure from Guerrero et al Hierarchical

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