CELL CYCLE

THE NECESSITY FOR THE

PRODUCTION OF NEW CELLS IN
ORGANISMS
Cells in the body are continuously
dividing, growing & dying.
New cells are produced from
existing cells, through a process
known as mitotic cell division.
Mitosis is the process of nuclear
division which results in the
formation of two genetically
identical daughter cells.
 The significance of
mitosis
Growth & development
Increases the number of cells in all
multicellular organisms.
Cell repair
Repairs damaged cells
Cell replacement
Forms new cells to replace dead cell
 The significance of
mitosis
Regeneration
Some animals are able to regenerate
whole parts of the body such as starfish.
Asexual reproduction
Basis of reproduction in unicellular
organisms such as Amoeba sp.
The offspring are genetically identical to
the parent cell
 CHROMOSOME
HAPLOID (n)
Human (23 pairs (n)) paternal (n) &
maternal (n)
Sperm & ova (reproductive cell) MEIOSIS
DIPLOID (2n)
Human (46 chromosome)
KARYOTYPE
Somatic cells MITOSIS
 The Cell Cycle
A cell cycle extends from the time a
new cell is produced until the cell
completes division.
Two major phases :
Interphase (G1, S , G2)
Mitotic cell division (M phase)
 G1 (Growth phase 1)
The cell begin to acquire & synthesise the
materials required for cell division
Protein & new organelles (mitochondria
& chloroplast) are synthesised.
Metabolic rate of the cell is high.
Chromosome are extremely fine and
appear as thread-like structure known as
chromatin.
 S-phase (Synthesis-phase)
Synthesis of DNA
DNA undergoes replication
A duplicated chromosome consist of two
identical chromosomes called sister
chromatids
In animal cells, the centrioles duplicate.
 G2 (Growth phase 2)
The cell continues to grow & remains
metabolically active
Enzymes & proteins are synthesised for
the cell division.
The cell accumulates energy & completes
it final preparations for the next division.
INTERPHASE
 M phase (Mitosis &
Cytokinesis)
Mitosis :
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis :
The cytoplasm divides to form two
daughter cells, each having one nucleus
which contains the diploid number of
chromosomes.
 PROPHASE
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form
visible chromosomes.
Mitotic spindle forms from fiber of
centrioles.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are
broken down.
Spindle fiber attached to the centromere
of each chromosome.
Eventually, spindle extends between two
opposite pole of the cell.
 METAPHASE
Chromosomes, attached to the spindle
fibers, move to the center of the cell.
The chromosomes line up across the
center of the cell
 ANAPHASE
The sister chromatid separated into
individual chromosomes.
The chromosomes continue to move until
they have separated into two groups
 TELOPHASE
Sister chromatid at opposite poles.
Spindle disassembles.
Nuclear envelop forms around each set of
sister chromatid.
Nucleolus reappears.
Eventually, the mitotic spindle breaks up.
 CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis means the division of
cytoplasm.
Division of cell into two identical daughter
cell.
In plant cells, cell plate forms at the
equator to divide cell.
In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to
split cell.
Gap 0/ G0
A resting phase where the cell has left
the cycle and has stopped dividing.
MITOTIC CELL INTERPHASE
DIVISION (G1, S, G2)
(M PHASE)

A cell cycle extends from the time a new cell is

produced until the cell completes a division
 Uncontrolled mitosis
The situation where the cell divides
through mitosis repeatedly without control
because the genes that regulates the cell
cycle are mutated or damaged.

Abnormal daughter cells

Tumour
 Factor
Radiation
Carcinogenic compounds
Chemical compound

Intrude, spread and destroy neighbouring

tissue
 Tumour

Malignant (cancer) Benign

* Are not life

* Compete with surrounding threatening
normal cells to obtain sufficient
nutrients & energy for growth * Can be removed by
surgery
* Impair the functions of tissues
* Lead to death
 The application of knowledge of
mitosis in cloning
The process of producing clones or
genetically copies of cells, tissue or an
organ through asexual reproduction

Cloning in Cloning in
animals plants
Cloning in animals
 Somatic cells (from the udder cells) are
removed and grown in a low culture medium
An unfertillised egg cell is obtained
The nucleus is removed, leaving the cytoplasm
and organelles without any chromosomes
An electric pulse stimulates the fusion between
the somatic cell and the egg cell.
The fused cell divides repeatedly; forming an
embryo
The embryo is the implanted into a surrogate
mother.
The embryo grows normally into a cloned
Cloning in plants
 Small pieces of root, shoot or stem tissue
(explants) are taken from the parent plant
The explants are sterilised and then placed in a
culture medium containing nutrients & growth
hormones
The explants divide by mitosis to form a callus,
an undifferentiated mass of tissue
The callus develops into a somatic embryo
The embryo develops into a plantlet which can
be transferred to the soil for growth into an adult
plant.
 Advantages of cloning
Allows biotechnologist to multiply copies of
useful genes or clones
Clones can be produced in a shorter time
and in large number
Creates many transgenic crops which are
resistant to herbicides, pests and disease.
Cloning involves vegetative reproduction
which does not need pollinating agents.
 Advantages of cloning
Cloned plants
Can produced flowers and fruits within a
shorter period
Produce better quality yields
Delay ripening of fruits for longer shelf life.
 Disadvantages of cloning
Clones do not show any genetic variations
All clones have the same level of
resistance towards certain disease. They
are not resistant to new disease or pests.
New clones may undergo natural
mutations and disrupt the natural
equilibrium of an ecosystem
.cloned animals have a shorter lifespan
The long term side effects of using
genetically modified organisms are not yet
known.