Earthquake Descriptors

Earthquake Descriptor
Earthquakes are normally assumed to originate from
a single point known as the focus or hypocenter
which is invariably within about 700km of the
surface
In reality, however, most earthquakes are generated
by movement along a fault plane, so the focal region
may extend for several kilometers.
The point on the Earths surface vertically above the
focus is the epicenter.
The angle subtended at the center of the Earth by
the epicenter and the point at which the seismic
waves are detected is known as the epicentral angle.
Earthquake Magnitude (N.)
The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on
measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph.
Earthquake Magnitude
The Richter Scale
The first widely-used method, the Richter scale, was developed by Charles F.
Richter in 1934.
The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its energy release on a
logarithmic scale; a change in magnitude of one on the Ritcher scale implies
a 30-fold increase in energy release Figure 1 -Charles Ritcher
studying a Seismogram
It used a formula based on amplitude of the largest wave recorded on a
specific type of seismometer and the distance between the earthquake and
the seismometer.
That scale was specific to California earthquakes; other scales, based on
wave amplitudes and total earthquake duration, were developed for use in
other situations and they were designed to be consistent with Richters
scale.
The Richter scale has no lower limit and no maximum. It's a "logarithmic"
scale, which means that each one-point increase on the scale represents a
10-fold increase in the magnitude of the quake.
Earthquake Magnitude
The Richter Scale
A quake with magnitude between 2
and 3 is the lowest normally
perceptible to humans. A
magnitude 5 quake is considered
moderate.
Worldwide, there are about 1,500
earthquakes of magnitude 5 or
higher every year.
An earthquake of magnitude 6 or
higher is considered major.
The largest earthquakes in history
have been of about magnitude 9.
Figure 2 - The 1906 San
Francisco earthquake,
with a magnitude of 8.3,
was approximately one
million times as powerful
as the atomic bomb
dropped on Hiroshima.
Earthquake Magnitude
The Moment Magnitude Scale
Unfortunately, many scales, such as the Richter
scale, do not provide accurate estimates for large
magnitude earthquakes.
Today the moment magnitude scale,
abbreviated MW, is preferred because it works over
a wider range of earthquake sizes and is applicable
globally.
The moment magnitude scale is based on the total
moment release of the earthquake. Figure 3 - The area of the
Moment is a product of the distance a fault moved circle is proportional to
and the force required to move it. It is derived from the energy of an event at
modeling recordings of the earthquake at multiple moment magnitude +1
stations. versus moment
magnitude +2.
 Figure 4 - Earthquake
Moment Magnitudes &
Energy Release
Seismic Moment (N.)
The seismic moment is a measure of the size of an earthquake based on the area of fault rupture, the average
amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction sticking the rocks together that were
offset by faulting.
Seismic Moment
Though Richter magnitude is the most commonly
quoted measure of earthquake size, it is not the most
accurate.
A better measure is seismic moment, Mo.
Seismic moment occurs just before a fault ruptures,
when the shear forces on either side of the fault create a
couple, or torque, whose size/moment equals the
product of the shear forces and the perpendicular forces
between them.
Moment of couple= F2b Figure 5 - Image inspired
F= A strain by Khan, M. Aftab and
= the rigidity of the rock around the source, linearly related to Alan E. Mussett. Looking
the size of the earthquake Into the Earth: An
A= surface area of the fault Introduction to Geological
Geophysics.New York:
Strain= d/2b
Cambridge, 2000
Moment of couple= Ad= Mo
d= offset of the fault (how much the fault slips)
Modern Seismometer
Modern seismometer Works via
electromagnetic forces holding a mass in
place, and measuring the current required to
do so.
If you speeded up any earthquake signal and
listened to it with a hi fi, it would sound like
thunder. east-west north-south up-down
Three components of motion can be
measured
Foreshocks, Aftershocks, and Swarms (N.)
When a series of earthquakes with shallow focal depths occur within a limited time and area and if there is an
event, which is much larger than the rest, this event is called the main shock
Foreshock
Earthquakes which occur before a main shock
near the area in which the main shock occurs
occur from minutes to days or even longer before
the main shock
important for earthquake prediction
Not all main shocks have foreshocks

Example: 2002 Sumatra Earthquake(7.3) is

believed to be the foreshock of the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake(9.1 to 9.3), west coast of
Sumatra, Indonesia
Aftershock
Earthquakes that follow the main
shock
Can continue over a period of weeks,
months, or years
In general, the larger the mainshock,
the larger and more numerous the
aftershocks
Occurs within an aftershock zone or
within one rupture length of the
mainshock rupture surface
Represent minor readjustments along
the portion of a fault that slipped at
the time of the mainshock
Aftershock

Aftershocks example of 2004

earthquake
 Earthquake Swarms

A series of minor earthquakes, none

of which may be identified as the
main shock, occurring in a limited
area and time
Length of time varies
Seismic Intensity (N.)
The intensity of an earthquake is not entirely determined by its magnitude. It is not based on first physical
principles, but is, instead, empirically based on observed effects.
Seismic Intensity
Intensity indicates the local
effects and potential for
damage produced by an Figure 7 Isoseismal map
earthquake on the Earth's
surface as it affects humans,
animals, structures, and natural
objects such as bodies of water.
are usually expressed in Roman
numerals.
Seismic intensity scales are used
to measure the intensity of an
earthquake.
Seismic Intensity
The first widely adopted intensity scale, the RossiForel scale, was introduced in the late 19th century.

Figure 8 - Summary of Tables of numerous intensity

scales have been developed and are used in different
parts of the world
Seismic Intensity
RossiForel Scale
One of the first seismic scales to reflect
earthquake intensities.
Developed by Michele Stefano Conte de
Rossi of Italy and Franois-Alphonse Forel of
Switzerland in the late 19th century
The 1873 version of the RossiForel scale had
10 intensity levels
Figure 9 Rossi-Forel Scale (1873) Figure 10 Rossi-Forel Scale (Adapted)
Seismic Intensity
The Mercalli Scale
Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this scale uses the
observations of the people who experienced the earthquake to
estimate its intensity.
The Mercalli scale isn't considered as scientific as the Richter
scale, though. Some witnesses of the earthquake might
exaggerate just how bad things were during the earthquake
and you may not find two witnesses who agree on what
happened; everybody will say something different.
The amount of damage caused by the earthquake may not
accurately record how strong it was either. Figure 7 - Giuseppe
Some things that affect the amount of damage that occurs are: Mercalli
the building designs,
the distance from the epicenter,
and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on.
Seismic Intensity
The Mercalli Scale
Quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans,
objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale from I (not felt) to XII
(total destruction).
Adolfo Cancani & August Heinrich Sieberg - MercalliCancaniSieberg (MCS)
scale
Harry O. Wood and Frank Neumann - MercalliWoodNeumann (MWN) scale
It was later improved by Charles Richter, the father of the Richter magnitude
scale
The scale is known today as the Modified Mercalli scale (MM) or Modified
Mercalli Intensity scale (MMI).
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of
buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing
motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck.
Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some
awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound.
Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked
noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows
broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few
instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight

to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in
poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in
ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly
built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed
frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial
buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed.
Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown
into the air.
Seismic Intensity

Figure 11 Relationship between

Magnitude and Intensity