Design Loads

N-W.F.P.
University of Engineering and

Technology Peshawar
Lecture 03: Design Loads
By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

chairciv@nwfpuet.edu.pk
1
Topics to be Addressed
Types of loads
Wind Load
Earthquake Load
Load Combinations
CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 2

Feeling Responsibility
CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 3

Types of Loads
Determination of loads for which a given
structure may be designed for is a
difficult problem.
Questions to be Answered:
What loads may structure be called upon during its
lifetime?
In what combinations these loads occur?
The probability that a specific live load be
exceeded at some time during lifetime of
structure?

Types of Loads
Design load should be rational such that considering 150mph

wind load for a tower is reasonable but not the load of a tank on
top of the tower.

Types of Loads
Three broad categories:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load

Types of Loads
1. Dead load
Dead Loads consist of the weight of all
materials and fixed equipment
incorporated into the building or other
structure. (UBC Section 1602)
Weight of structure
Weight of permanent machinery etc.
Dead loads can be reasonably estimated if
the member dimensions and material
densities are known.

Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Live loads are those loads produced by the
use and occupancy of the building or other
structure and do not include dead load,
construction load, or environmental loads.
Weight of people, furniture, machinery,
goods in building.
Weight of traffic on bridge

Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

extremely difficult to estimate suitable design
loads.
Different building codes specify live load
requirements.
Uniform Building Code (UBC)
Southern Standard Building Code
BOCA National Building Code

Types of Loads
2. Live load: (UBC Table 16-A)
Live loads for various occupancies
Occupancy Live load,psf
Residential 40
Libraries(reading room) 60
Mercantile 75-125
Heavy manufacturing 125-150
Light storage 120-125
Heavy storage 250 minimum
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
The 40psf L.L specified by code for Residential Buildings is too

Conservative to account for the uncertainties in structural actions
Such as impact, fatigue, temp. effects etc.
Types of loads
3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
and flood load.

Live load reduction
The Uniform building code and BOCA National
building code permit reduction in basic design live
load on any member supporting more than 150ft2
R = r(A-150)
Or R = 23.1(1+D/L)
Where R = reduction, percent
r = rate of reduction = 0.08% for floors
A = area supported by floor or member
D = dead load, psf
L = basic live load,psf

Wind load
Bernoullis equation for stream flow is used to
determine local pressure at stagnation point,
considering air to be non-viscous &
incompressible.
q: pressure
q = (v2/2) : mass density of air
v: velocity
This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure,

stagnation pressure.
This equation is based on steady flow.
It does not account for dynamic effects of gusts or dynamic
response of body.

Wind load
Resultant wind pressure on body depends upon
pattern of flow around it.
Pressure vary from point to point on surface,
which depends on shape & size of body.
Resultant wind pressure is expressed as:
PD = CDA(v2/2) PL= CLA(v2/2)

CD : Drag coefficient
CL : Lift coefficient

Wind load
For buildings bridges and the like pressure is
expressed in terms of Shape Factor CS (pressure
coefficient)
P = CSq = CS(v2/2)
Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf
P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

Wind load
Measured wind velocities are averages of
fluctuating velocities encountered during a finite
time.
In US average of velocities recorded during the
time it takes a horizontal column of air 1 mile long
to pass a fixed point.
Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
Annual extreme mile is the largest of the daily
maximums.

Wind load
Wind pressure to be used in design should be
based on a wind velocity having a specific
mean recurrence interval.
The flow of air close to ground is slowed by
surface roughness, which depends on density,
size and height of buildings, trees, vegetation
etc.
Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above ground
is used as the basic values for design purpose.

Wind load

Wind load
Shape factor varies considerably with proportion
of structure & horizontal angle of incidence of the
wind.
CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is 0.9
CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape
factor 1.2 to 1.5
Commonly used is 1.3
CS for Side walls -0.4 to 0.8
CS for roof 0.5 to 0.8

Wind load
Wind forces on trussed structures e.g. bridges, transmission
towers, beam bridges, girder bridges etc. difficult to assess
because of leeward parts of structure.
Recommended coefficients for walls of buildings,
gabled roofs, arched roofs, roofs over unenclosed
structures(stadium), chimneys, tanks, signs,
transmission towers etc. are given in ASCE 7-02
Wind pressures specified by building codes include
allowance for gust and shape factors.

Wind load
Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

Suction acts on the leeward face of the building
Suction acts on the sides of the building so a person
standing in The window may be thrown outside
Suction acts on the floor so that GI sheet floors are
blown away During strong wind storms

Wind load
The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Experience suction which will cause tension in the column and as
Concrete is weak in tension so it may crack. As a result the lateral
Wind load may collapse the restaurant.

Wind load
AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

The pressure face is taken as a solid without openings
and suction on the leeward face is neglected (its still quiet
Conservative)

Wind Pressure UBC 97
Design Wind Pressure:
P CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)
Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Cq (or Cs): Pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of
structure under consideration (Table 16-H)
qs : wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of
33ft (Table 16-F)
Iw: importance factor (Table 16-k)

Wind Load Example
Example: Calculate the wind pressure exerted by a
wind blowing at 100mph on the civil engineering
department old building.
Sol: According the formula given above:
P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph
For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)
For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

Wind Load Example
P=0.00256CSV2
Pwindward = 20.48 psf
Pleeward = 12.80 psf
Ptotal = 33.28 psf

Wind Load Example
Alternate Method:
P CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)
Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

Cq = 0.8 ( For windward wall, Table 16-H)
= 0.5 ( For leeward wall, Table 16-H)
qs = 25.6 psf (For 100mph velocity, Table 16-F)
Iw = 1.0 (According to occupancy category, Table16-K)

Wind Load Example
P CeCqqsIw
Pwindward = 15.56 psf
Pleeward = 9.73 psf
Ptotal = 25.29 psf

Wind Load Example

Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Earthquake loads are necessary to
consider in earthquake prone regions.
Earthquake waves are of two types:
Body waves
Surface waves

Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves
These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to
move back and forth and impart accelerations into the
base of structure.
Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses
change rapidly & their magnitude vary from small
values to more than that of gravity.

Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Body waves reach the A linear increase in magnitude

buildings first, followed by of EQ causes approximately cubic
the more Dangerous increase in the corresponding
surface waves amount of energy released

Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Shallow EQ of depth, say, 15-20km are far more dangerous than

deep EQ of depth, say, 150-200km.

Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily
depends upon:
Mass
stiffness
natural period of vibration
damping characteristics of structure
location from epicenter
topography & geological formation.

Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures

Earthquake Load
Response Modification Factor

Earthquake Load
Response Modification Factor

Earthquake Load
Natural Time period of structures
EQ generally have short periods which may match the natural

period of the low rise buildings, say 10 to 20 stories which causes
resonance results in serious damages. The possibility of
resonance for high rise buildings is low due to longer time periods.
Earthquake Load UBC 97
Static Lateral force procedure: Limitations
1629.8.3: The static lateral force procedure of
Section1630 may be used for the following structures:
1. All structures, regular or irregular, in Seismic Zone 1

and in Occupancy Categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular structures under 240 feet in height with lateral
force resistance provided by systems listed in Table 16-N,
except where Section 1629.8.4, Item 4, applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 65 feet
in height

Static Lateral force procedure: Limitations
1629.8.3: The static lateral force procedure of
Section1630 may be used for the following structures:
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a

rigid lower portion where both portions of the structure
considered separately can be classified as being regular,
the average story stiffness of the lower portion is at least
10 times the average story stiffness of the upper portion
and the period of the entire structure is not greater than
1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a
separate structure fixed at the base.
1630.2.1 Design base shear. The total design base
shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following
formula:
V = (Cv I/R T) * W (30-4)
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W (30-5)
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
V = (0.11 Ca I) W (30-6)
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also
not be less than the following:
V = (0.8 ZNv I/R) * W (30-7)

1630.2.1 Design base shear.
For Seismic Zones 1, 2A, 2B, and 3:
V = (0.11 Ca I) W V = (Cv I/R T) * W V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W
For Seismic Zone 4:

V = (0.8 ZNv I/R) * W

V = total base shear
*Ca & CV = seismic dynamic response spectrum values.
(table 16-Q & table 16-R)
Z = seismic zone factor. (Table 16.I)
Nv & Na = near source factors that are applicable in only
seismic zone 4. (Table 16-T & Table 16-S)
*Depends on Seismic zone and soil profile

Soil profiles

Seismic Zone BCP 07

I = Importance factor (Table 16-K)
W = Total seismic dead load
R = Response factor depends on type of structural system
(Table 16-N)
T =Elastic fundamental period of vibration.
T = Ct hn
Ct = 0.035 for steel moment resisting frame

(0.11 Ca I): this coefficient is also independent of

the period of vibration. It is a lower
bound value, keeping V at some
minimum value.

(Cv I / R T): acceleration factor (also known as a

seismic base shear coefficient). This coefficient
will govern V for buildings with medium to long
fundamental period of vibrations. The forces in
these buildings are induced by the velocity
component of the bedrock motion. Hence the "v"
subscript.

(2.5 Ca I/R): this coefficient is independent of the period

of vibration. It will govern V for buildings with short
fundamental periods of vibrations, like the buildings
being studied in this class. The forces in these stiff
buildings are generated by the acceleration
component of the bedrock motion. Hence the "a
subscript.

(0.82 N v I / R): this lower bound coefficient is only

applicable to structures located in seismic zone 4 and
within 9.3 miles (15 km) of a known seismic fault.

Typical Base shear coefficient for Masonry
Typical base shear coefficient values for a regular, single-
story masonry building not located near a fault. In addition,
we conservatively assumed that a geotechnical site
investigation was not completed. Because this type of
building is so stiff, the (2.5 Ca I / R) coefficient governs V.
Zone Coefficient
1 V = .067W
2a V = .122W
2b V = .156W
3 V = .200W
4 V = .244W
Vertical distribution: Total force shall be distributed
over height in the following manner:
V=Ft + Fx
Concentrated force Ft at top shall determined by:
.07TV .25V
Ft =
0 if T .7 sec.
Force Fx at each level including level n:

Vertical distribution:
The single story building is a special

case. In most cases, T .7 and Ft then
is taken as zero.
From equation 30-15:

Base Shear Example
Calculate and distribute the base shear for a
five story residential steel building 50 ft high,
located at Peshawar. Assuming SD soil
profile.

Base Shear Example
Z = 0.2 Table 16.I

Ca = 0.28 Table 16-Q
CV = 0.40 Table 16-R
I =1 Table 16-K
R = 4.5 Table 16-N
T = Ct hn = (.035)(50) = 0.66 sec

Base Shear Example
(0.11 Ca I) = 0.0308
(Cv I/R T) = 0.1347
(2.5 Ca I/R) = 0.1556
Therefore base shear is equal to:
V = 0.1347W

Total force shall be distributed over height in the
following manner:
W5
W4
W3
W2
W1

Base Shear Example
As T < 0.7 therefore Ft = 0

W2 = W3 = W5 = 14 kips
W1 = W4 = 20 kips
W = 14 x 3 + 20 x 2 = 82 kips
V = 0.1347 x 82 = 11.04 kips

Base Shear Example
i. Story level 1: F1
W h = 20 x 10 = 200 k-ft
x x
W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F1 = 0.92 kips

Base Shear Example
W h = 14 x 20 = 280 k-ft
x x
W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F2 = 1.29 kips

Base Shear Example
W h = 14 x 30 = 420 k-ft
x x
W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F3 = 1.93 kips

Base Shear Example
W h = 20 x 40 = 800 k-ft
x x
W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F4 = 3.68 kips

Base Shear Example
W h = 14 x 50 = 700 k-ft
x x
W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F5 = 3.22 kips

Mean Return Period
The average Time Period (in years) based on
geological and historical records in which there is a
good statistical probability that an earthquake of a
certain magnitude or a hurricane will recur is called
Mean Return Period or Recurrence Interval R.
Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year

is the inverse of the Mean Return Period = 1/R
Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in

the n years is
Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n

Mean Return Period
Considering 150mph with a return period of, say, 100years

is Reasonable as compared to 500mph with a return period of,
say, 1000 years.

Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an windstorm of
150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will
encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?
P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be

exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.

Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an earthquake
of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will encounter
an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?
P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed

to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g

Mean Return Period
Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for
which a building has to be designed should correspond to an
earthquake with a return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The
probability that it will experience and earthquake of mean
return period 475 in its design life would be:
P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%
Impact Load
Spring Example
It is customary to express Impact load as
percentage of static force.
Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
According to AISC live load on hangers
supporting floor and balcony construction should
be increased by one-third for impact.

Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75W
3. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75E
D = dead load
L = Live load
W = Wind load
E = Earthquake load

Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
You can use following load combinations with the
parameter ALSTRINC (Allowable Strength
Increase) to account for the 1/3 allowable
increase for the wind and seismic load
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0W
3. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0E

Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D +1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E
D = Dead load L = Live load
Lr = Roof Live Load W = Wind load
S = Snow Load E = Earthquake load
R = Rain Water or Ice
Load Combinations
Why only Dead load in equation (1) ?
There may be a significant live load on a

structure during construction.
Moreover, the structure may have not
reached its full 28 days strength as further
construction is usually carried out .

Load Combinations
Example: increase in dead load on the ground floor due bricks

lying on the roof for the construction of the first floor

Load Combinations
Why negative sign in equation (6) ?
It accounts for the stability of structures due

to lateral loadings.

Load Combinations
The stabilizing effect of gravity is reduced and the destabilizing

effect of lateral load due to wind or earthquake is increased to
have the worse situation

Load Combinations
Example: Roof beams W16X31, spaced 7ft-0in center-to-center,
support a superimposed dead load of 40 psf. Code specified roof
loads are 30 psf downward (due to roof live load, snow, or rain)
and 20 psf upward or downward (due to wind). Determine the
critical loading for LRFD.
D = 31 plf + 40 psf X 7.0 ft = 311 plf

L=0
(Lr or S or R) = 30 psf X 7.0 ft = 210 plf
W = 20 psf X 7.0 ft = 140 plf
E=0

Load Combinations
1) 1.4D
1.4(311 plf) = 435 plf
2) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0.5(210 plf) = 478 plf
3) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)

1.2(311 plf) + 1.6 (210 plf) +0.8(140 plf) = 821 plf
4) 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2(311 plf) + 1.3(140 plf) + 0 +0.5(210 plf) = 660 plf

Load Combinations
5) 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S

1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0 + 0.2(210 plf) = 415 plf
6) 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E)

a) 0.9 (311 plf) + 1.3 (140 plf) = 462 plf
b) 0.9(311 plf) - 1.3(140 plf) = 98 plf
The critical factored load combination for design is the third, with
a total factored load of 821 plf.

Thank You!

Design Loads

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N-W.F.P.

University of Engineering and

Lecture 03: Design Loads

By: Prof Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 2

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 3

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 4

Design load should be rational such that considering 150mph

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 5

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 6

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 7

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 8

Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 9

The 40psf L.L specified by code for Residential Buildings is too

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 12

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 13

This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure,

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 14

PD = CDA(v2/2) PL= CLA(v2/2)

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 15

Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 16

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 17

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 18

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 20

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 21

Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 22

The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 23

AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 24

P CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 25

Sol: According the formula given above:

For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 26

Pwindward = 20.48 psf

Pleeward = 12.80 psf

Ptotal = 33.28 psf

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 27

P CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 28

Pwindward = 15.56 psf

Pleeward = 9.73 psf

Ptotal = 25.29 psf

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr Akhtar Naeem Khan 33

Body waves reach the A linear increase in magnitude

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 34

Shallow EQ of depth, say, 15-20km are far more dangerous than

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 35

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 36

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EQ generally have short periods which may match the natural