1.

Steam Nozzles

Prepared by
Venkat Chintala
Asst. Prof. S.G.
Mechanical Engg. Deptt., UPES
 Contents
Introduction
Stagnation properties
Mass flow rate
Critical pressure ratio
Choked flow
Design parameters
Nozzle efficiency
 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

The stagnation properties at a point are defined

as those which are to be obtained if the local flow
were imagined to cease to zero velocity
isentropically.

The stagnation values are denoted by a subscript

zero.
Consider a fluid flowing into a diffuser at a velocity , temperature T,
pressure P, and enthalpy h, etc. Here the
V ordinary properties T, P, h,
etc. are called the static properties; that is, they are measured relative
to the flow at the flow velocity. The diffuser is sufficiently long and
the exit area is sufficiently large that the fluid is brought to rest (zero
velocity) at the diffuser exit while no work or heat transfer is done.
The resulting state is called the stagnation state.

We apply the first law per unit mass for one entrance, one exit, and
neglect the potential energies. Let the inlet state be unsubscripted
and the exit or stagnation state have the subscript o.
2 2
V Vo
qnet h wnet ho
2 2 4
Since the exit velocity, work, and heat transfer are zero,
2
V
ho h
2
The term ho is called the stagnation enthalpy (some authors call this
the total enthalpy). It is the enthalpy the fluid attains when brought
to rest adiabatically while no work is done.

If, in addition, the process is also reversible, the process is isentropic,

and the inlet and exit entropies are equal.
so s

The stagnation enthalpy and entropy define

the stagnation state and the isentropic
stagnation pressure, Po. The actual
stagnation pressure for irreversible flows
will be somewhat less than the isentropic
stagnation pressure as shown below.
5
Rewrite the equation defining the stagnation enthalpy as
2
V
ho h
2

For ideal gases with constant specific heats, the enthalpy difference becomes
2 2
V V
CP (To T ) To T
2 2C P

where To is defined as the stagnation temperature.

For the isentropic process, the stagnation pressure can be determined from

or

6
MASS FLOW RATE THROUGH A NOZZLE
CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
 Maximum mass flow
rate (Mach. No. =1)
0.16

0.14

0.12
m [kg/s]

0.10
Dia.=1 cm
0.08
To=1200 K
0.06 Po=1500 kPa
0.04

0.02

0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

P*/Po P/Po

The critical pressure ratio is defined as the ratio of pressure at the

throat to the inlet pressure. 11
 The pressure ratio that makes the mass flow rate a
maximum is the same pressure ratio at which the Mach
number is unity (M=1) at the flow cross-sectional area.

This value of the pressure ratio is called the critical

pressure ratio for nozzle flow.

For pressure ratios less than the critical value, the nozzle is
said to be choked. When the nozzle is choked, the mass
flow rate is the maximum possible for the flow area,
stagnation pressure, and stagnation temperature.

Reducing the pressure ratio below the critical value will not
increase the mass flow rate.
 NON-CHOKED FLOW
As a compressible fluid passes through a restriction
there are changes in both velocity and pressure.

The fluid starts upstream at a higher pressure, which

falls as it increases velocity flowing through the
restriction, and may continue to fall as the velocity
increases through the vena contracta. After passing
the vena contracta the fluid will begin expand to fill
the cross sectional area of the pipe and as it does will
slow down and regain pressure.

Fluid flow is directly proportional to pressure

difference
 For normal non-choked flow with a given inlet
pressure, reducing the outlet pressure will cause a
greater differential pressure across the restriction
and therefore increase the fluid flow rate and
velocity. This holds true until the flow rate is
increased to the point that the fluid reaches the
local sonic velocity at the throat of the restriction
and becomes choked.
The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic
velocity is attained to the inlet pressure of a nozzle is
called the critical pressure ratio.
 CHOKED FLOW
As a compressible fluid reaches the speed of sound (i.e. has
a Mach number of 1), pressure changes can no longer be
communicated upstream as the speed of which these
pressure changes are propagated is limited by the speed of
sound.

In a nozzle or restriction this has the effect of isolating the

upstream side from the downstream side at the throat.
Because of this effect any reduction in downstream pressure
will have no effect on the flow rate, as the increased
pressure differential is not 'felt' upstream of the restriction.

The establishment of choked flow can be identified as the

point at which the ratio of the minimum fluid pressure to
inlet pressure falls below the critical pressure ratio in the
fluid.
P1 P2
 It should be noted that while downstream changes in pressure
will not effect the mass flow rate when the flow is choked,
changes in the upstream pressure may still have an effect as it
will affect the local speed of sound at the throat, and thus
change the mass flow rate at which the system becomes
choked.

Mass flow rate proportional to Pressure difference (P2-P1)

P2-P1 two options P2 decrease (down stream change)
P1 increase (upstream change)

Reducing the downstream pressure of a choked system will not

result in increased mass flow rate but it will however, result in
an increased velocity of the fluid after the restriction. After
reaching the point of choked flow, further reductions in
downstream pressure will result in the fluid accelerating away
from the throat and in some cases achieving supersonic speeds
(Mach number > 1).
Experiment
 Imagine you are controlling the pressure in cylinder B, and
measuring the resulting mass flow rate through the nozzle.
You may expect that the lower you make the pressure in B
the more mass flow you'll get through the nozzle. This is
true, but only up to a point. If you lower the back pressure
enough you come to a place where the flow rate suddenly
stops increasing all together and it doesn't matter how much
lower you make the back pressure (even if you make it a
vacuum) you can't get any more mass flow out of the nozzle.

You could delay this behavior by making the nozzle throat

bigger (e.g. grey line) but eventually the same thing would
happen.

The nozzle will become choked even if you eliminated the

throat altogether and just had a converging nozzle.
Reason for chocking of nozzle :
In a steady internal flow (like a nozzle) the Mach number can
only reach 1 at minimum cross sectional area.

When the nozzle isn't choked, the flow through it is entirely

subsonic and, if you lower the back pressure a little, the flow
goes faster and the flow rate increases. As you lower the back
pressure further the flow speed at the throat eventually reaches
the speed of sound (Mach 1). Any further lowering of the back
pressure can't accelerate the flow through the nozzle any more,
because that would entail moving the point where M=1 away
from the throat where the area is a minimum, and so the flow
gets stuck.

The flow pattern downstream of the nozzle (in the diverging

section and jet) can still change if you lower the back pressure
further, but the mass flow rate is now fixed because the flow in
the throat (and for that matter in the entire converging section)
is now fixed too.
 Operational/design considerations of Nozzles

A converging passage designed to accelerate the a gas flow

The concern here is with the effect of changes in the upstream
and downstream pressures
on the nature of the flow and
on the mass flow rate through a nozzle.

Four different operational conditions :

Converging nozzle with constant upstream conditions
Converging-diverging nozzle with constant upstream conditions
Converging nozzle with constant downstream conditions
Converging-diverging nozzle with constant downstream
conditions
Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging
Nozzle
The flow is supplied by a reservoir at pressure Pr and temperature Tr. The
reservoir is large enough that the velocity in the reservoir is zero.
Let's plot the ratio P/Po along the length of the nozzle, the mass flow rate
through the nozzle, and the exit plane pressure Pe as the back pressure Pb is
varied. For isentropic flow, Po is constant throughout the nozzle.

Conclusions:
1. Pb = Po, Pb /Po = 1. No flow occurs. Pe = Pb, M=0.

2. Pb > P* or P*/Po < Pb /Po < 1. Flow begins to increase as the back pressure is
lowered. Pe = Pb, M < 1.

3. Pb = P* or P*/Po = Pb /Po < 1. Flow increases to the choked flow limit as the back
pressure is lowered to the critical pressure. Pe = Pb, M=1.

4. Pb < P* or Pb /Po < P*/Po < 1. Flow is still choked and does not increase as the
back pressure is lowered below the critical pressure, pressure drop from Pe to Pb
occurs outside the nozzle. Pe = P*, M=1.

5. Pb = 0. Results are the same as for item 4.

23
24
25
 PA = Po, or PA/Po = 1. No flow occurs. Pe = Pb, Me = 0.

Po > PB > PC > P* or P*/Po < PC/Po < PB/Po < 1. Flow begins to increase
as the back pressure is lowered. The velocity increases in the converging
section but M < 1 at the throat; thus, the diverging section acts as a
diffuser with the velocity decreasing and pressure increasing. The flow
remains subsonic through the nozzle. Pe = Pb and Me < 1.

Pb = PC = P* or P*/Po = Pb/Po = PC/Po and Pb is adjusted so that M=1 at

the throat. Flow increases to its maximum value at choked conditions;
velocity increases to the speed of sound at the throat, but the converging
section acts as a diffuser with velocity decreasing and pressure
increasing. Pe = Pb, Me < 1.

26
 PC > Pb > PE or PE/Po < Pb/Po < PC/Po < 1. The fluid that achieved sonic
velocity at the throat continues to accelerate to supersonic velocities in
the diverging section as the pressure drops. This acceleration comes to a
sudden stop, however, as a normal shock develops at a section between
the throat and the exit plane. The flow across the shock is highly
irreversible. The normal shock moves downstream away from the throat
as Pb is decreased and approaches the nozzle exit plane as Pb
approaches PE. When Pb = PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane
of the nozzle. The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section
in this case, and it can be approximated as isentropic.

PE > Pb > 0 or 0 < Pb/Po < PE/Po < 1. The flow in the diverging section is
supersonic, and the fluids expand to PF at the nozzle exit with no normal
shock forming within the nozzle. When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or
outside the nozzle. When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and expansion
waves occur downstream of the exit plane or the nozzle. When Pb > PF,
however, the pressure of the fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in
the wake or the nozzle exit, creating what are called oblique shocks.

27
Normal Shocks

In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat
of a converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section experiences a normal shock. The normal shock causes a
sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be
approximated as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific
heats before (subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by

28
 Nozzle efficiency
The isentropic efficiency of nozzles is defined as
the ratio of the actual kinetic energy at exit to the
kinetic energy at the exit when the process is
isentropic for the same inlet and exit pressures.
Example 1

Steam at 400oC, 1.0 MPa, and 300 m/s flows through a pipe. Find the properties of the
steam at the stagnation state.

At T = 400oC and P = 1.0 MPa,

h = 3264.5 kJ/kg s = 7.4670 kJ/kgK

V2
ho h
2
2
m kJ
kJ
300
s kg
3264.5
kg 2 m2
1000 2
s
kJ
3309.5
kg
kJ
so = s = 7.4670
kg K 30
Example 2

An aircraft flies in air at 5000 m with a velocity of 250 m/s. At 5000 m, air has a temperature
of 255.7 K and a pressure of 54.05 kPa. Find To and Po.
2
m kJ
V2 250
To T 255.7 K s kg
2
2CP kJ m
2(1.005 ) 1000 2
kg K s
(255.7 31.1) K
286.8 K

31
Example 2.A.

Consider the isentropic steady flow of an ideal gas through the nozzle shown below.

Air flows steadily through a varying-cross-sectional-area duct such as a nozzle at a

flow rate of 3 kg/s. The air enters the duct at a low velocity at a pressure of 1500 kPa
and a temperature of 1200 K and it expands in the duct to a pressure of 100 kPa.
The duct is designed so that the flow process is isentropic. Determine the pressure,
temperature, velocity, flow area, speed of sound, and Mach number at each point
along the duct axis that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

Since the inlet velocity is low, the stagnation properties equal the static properties.

To T1 1200 K , Po P1 1500 kPa

32
After the first 200 kPa pressure drop, we have

P (1300kPa ) kJ
3
RT (0.287 kJ )(11519. K ) kPa
m
kg K
kg
3.932 3
m

33
 kg
3
m s 104 cm2
A
V (3.9322 kg )(310.77 m ) m2
m3 s
24.55cm2
m2
1000 2
kJ s
C kRT 14
. (0.287 )(11519
. K)
kg K kJ
kg
m
680.33
s
310.77 m
V s 0.457
M
C 680.33 m
s
Now we tabulate the results for the other 200 kPa increments in the pressure until we
reach 100 kPa.

34
 Summary of Results for Nozzle Problem

Ste P T V C A M
p kPa K m/s 3 kg/m 2
m/s cm
0 1500 1200 0 4.3554 694.38 0

1 1300 1151.9 310.77 3.9322 680.33 24.55 0.457

2 1100 1098.2 452.15 3.4899 664.28 19.01 0.681
3 900 1037.0 572.18 3.0239 645.51 17.34 0.886
4 792.4 1000.0 633.88 2.7611 633.88 17.14 1.000
5 700 965.2 786.83 2.5270 622.75 17.28 1.103
6 500 876.7 805.90 1.9871 593.52 18.73 1.358
7 300 757.7 942.69 1.3796 551.75 23.07 1.709
8 100 553.6 1139.62 0.6294 471.61 41.82 2.416

Note that at P = 797.42 kPa, M = 1.000, and this state is the critical state.

35
Example 3

Air leaves the turbine of a turbojet engine and enters a convergent nozzle at 400 K,
871 kPa, with a velocity of 180 m/s. The nozzle has an exit area of 730 cm2.
Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for back pressures of 700 kPa, 528
kPa, and 100 kPa, assuming isentropic flow.

The stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure are

2
V
To T
2C P

36
For air k = 1.4, The critical pressure ratio is P*/Po = 0.528.

The critical pressure for this nozzle is

P* 0.528 Po
0.528(1000 kPa ) 528 kPa

Therefore, for a back pressure of 528 kPa, M = 1 at the nozzle exit and the flow is
choked. For a back pressure of 700 kPa, the nozzle is not choked. The flow rate will
not increase for back pressures below 528 kPa.

37
For the back pressure of 700 kPa,
PB 700 kPa P*
0.700
Po 1000 kPa Po
Thus, PE = PB = 700 kPa. For this pressure ratio Table A-15 gives
M E 0.7324
TE
0.9031
To
TE 0.9031To 0.9031(4161
. K ) 3758
. K
CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(3758
. K)
kg K kJ
kg
m
388.6
s
m
VE M E CE (0.7324)(388.6 )
s
m
284.6 38
s
 PE (700kPa ) kJ
E 3
RTE (0.287 kJ )(3758 m
. K ) kPa
kg K
kg
6.4902 3
m
Then

m E AEVE
kg m m2
6.4902 3 (730 cm )(284.6 )
2

m s (100 cm) 2
kg
134.8
s
For the back pressure of 528 kPa,
PE 528 kPa P*
0.528
Po 1000 kPa Po

39
This is the critical pressure ratio and ME = 1 and PE = PB = P* = 528 kPa.
TE T *
0.8333
To To
TE 0.8333 To 0.8333(4161
. K ) 346.7 K

And since ME = 1,
VE CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(346.7 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
373.2
s
P* (528kPa ) kJ
E
*

RT * (0.287 kJ )(346.7 K ) m3 kPa
kg K
kg
5.3064 3
m

40

m E AEVE
kg m m2
5.3064 3 (730 cm )(373.2 )
2

m s (100 cm) 2
kg
144.6
s
For a back pressure less than the critical pressure, 528 kPa in this case, the nozzle is
choked and the mass flow rate will be the same as that for the critical pressure.
Therefore, at a back pressure of 100 kPa the mass flow rate will be 144.6 kg/s.

Example 4

A converging-diverging nozzle has an exit-area-to-throat area ratio of 2. Air enters

this nozzle with a stagnation pressure of 1000 kPa and a stagnation temperature of
500 K. The throat area is 8 cm2. Determine the mass flow rate, exit pressure, exit
temperature, exit Mach number, and exit velocity for the following conditions:

Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a nozzle.

Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a diffuser.

41
For A/A* = 2, Table A-32 yields two Mach numbers, one > 1 and one < 1.

When the diverging section acts as a supersonic nozzle, we use the value for M > 1.
Then, for AE/A* = 2.0, ME = 2.197, PE/Po = 0.0939, and TE/To = 0.5089,
PE 0.0939 Po 0.0939(1000 kPa ) 93.9 kPa
TE 0.8333 To 0.5089(500 K ) 254.5 K
CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(254.5K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
319.7
s

42
 m m
VE M E CE 2.197(319.7 ) 702.5
s s
The mass flow rate can be calculated at any known cross-sectional area where the
properties are known. It normally is best to use the throat conditions. Since the flow
has sonic conditions at the throat, Mt = 1, and
Tt T *
0.8333
To To
Tt 0.8333 To 0.8333(500 K ) 416.6 K

Vt Ct kRTt
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(416.6 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
409.2
s
Pt P *
0.528
Po Po
Pt 0.528 Po 0.528(1000 kPa ) 528 kPa

43
 P* (528kPa ) kJ
t
*

RT * (0.287 kJ )(416.6 K ) m3 kPa
kg K
kg
4.416 3
m

m t AV
t t

kg m m2
4.416 3 (8 cm )(409.2 )
2

m s (100 cm) 2
kg
1446
.
s
When the diverging section acts as a diffuser, we use M < 1. Then, for
AE /A* = 2.0, ME = 0.308, PE /Po = 0.936, and TE /To = 0.9812,
PE 0.0939 Po 0.936(1000 kPa) 936 kPa
TE 0.8333 To 0.9812(500 K ) 490.6 K

44
 CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(490.6 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
444.0
s
m m
VE M E CE 0.308(444.0 ) 136.7
s s

Since M = 1 at the throat, the mass flow rate is the same as that in the first part
because the nozzle is choked.

45
Example 5

Air flowing with a velocity of 600 m/s, a pressure of 60 kPa, and a temperature of 260
K undergoes a normal shock. Determine the velocity and static and stagnation
conditions after the shock and the entropy change across the shock.

46
 V1 V1
The Mach number before the shock is M1
C1 kRT1
m
600
s
m2
1000 2
kJ s
1.4(0.287 )(260 K )
kg K kJ
kg
1.856
For M1 = 1.856, Table A-32 gives
P1 T
0.1597, 1 0.5921
Po1 To1
For Mx = 1.856, Table A-33 gives the following results.
P2
M 2 0.6045, 3.852, 2 2.4473
P1 1
T2 P P
1.574, o 2 0.7875, o 2 4.931
T1 Po1 P1

47
From the conservation of mass with A2 = A1.
V2 2 V1 1
m
600
V s 245.2 m
V2 1
2 2.4473 s
1
P2
P2 P1 60 kPa (3.852) 231.1 kPa
P1
T2
T2 T1 260 K (1.574) 409.2 K
T1
T1 260 K
To1 439.1 K To 2
T1 0.5921

To1
P 60 kPa
Po1 1 375.6 kPa
P1 0.1597

o1
P
P
Po 2 Po1 o 2 375.6 kPa(0.7875) 295.8 kPa
Po1
48
The entropy change across the shock is
T2 P2
s2 s1 CP ln R ln
T1 P1
kJ kJ
s2 s1 1.005 ln 1.574 0.287 ln 3.852
kg K kg K
kJ
0.0688
kg K

49
THANK U